戴炜栋语言学期末考试复习资料
ó????§?ú????ê??′?°×êá?
Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2. The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.
3. Some important distinctions in linguistics
1) Prescriptive vs. descriptive
If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ?°correct and standard?± behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
2) Synchronic vs. diachronic
A language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3) Speech and writing
Speech is more important: a. from linguistic evolution b. needed to record speech, can be spoken but many languages still not writing. c. play a greater role than writing in everyday communication.
4). Language and parole
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
5) Competence and performance
Competence as the ideal user?ˉs knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar:
a. linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
b. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written
c. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
4. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
5. The feature of language:
a. language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.
b. Language is arbitrary.
c. Language is symbolic.
6. Design features:
a. Arbitrariness: there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
b. Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
c. Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
d. Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away palces.
e. Culture transmission
Chapter two Phonology
1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world?ˉs languages.
2. Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics
3. Three important areas of organs of speech:
Pharyngeal cavity----the throat
The oral cavity---the mouth
Nasal cavity----the nose
4. The difference between broad transcription and narrow transcription:
Broad transcription is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.
Narrow transcription is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.
5. The classification of English speech sounds: two board categories: vowels and consonants.
and the other is in terms of place of articulation.
7. Types of English consonants: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides, bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal.
8. Classification of English vowels:
Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.
9. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
10. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
11. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
12. Allophones: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.
13. Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical￡¨íêè??àí?￡?in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.(till,kill)
14. Sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
15. If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
a. The first phoneme must be /s/
b. The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
c. The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/
16. Assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ?°copying?±
a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
17. Deletion rule: a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
18. Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.
19. Two kinds of stress￡o word stress and sentence stress
Sentence stress: the relative force given to the components of a sentence 20. Tone: pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
21. Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
a. falling-tone
b. rising tone
c. fall-rise tone
Chapter 3 Morphology
1. Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns￡¨′ú′ê￡? consist of relatively few words and have been referred to.
2. Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3. Morpheme: the most basic element of meaning.
Chapter 4 Syntax
1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. Category: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
3. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical
categories and minor lexical categories.
4. Called phrases: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.
5. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements:
a. head: the word around which a phrase is formed
b. specifier: the words on the left side of the heads are said to function.
c. Complements: the words on the right side of the heads.
6. Phrase structure rule: such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up phrase.
7. The XP rule: XP?a(specifier)---X(complement)
8. Coordination structure: some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or.
9. The principle of coordination rule:
a. there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
b. A category at any level can be coordinated.
c. Coordinated categories must be of the same type.
d. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
10. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
11. Determiners serve as the specifier of Ns while qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.
12. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.
13. Complementizers: words which introduce the sentence complement.
14. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.
15. Thus the whole italicized part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.
16. Modifier: which specify optionally expressible properties of heads.
17. The S rule: S--- NP VP
18. The XP rule: XP---(specifier)X(complement)
Chapter 5 Semantics
1. Semantics: is the study of meaning.
2. The naming theory: one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also the most primitive one.
3. The limitation of this theory:
a. this theory seems applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are definitely not labels of objects
b. within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all, and also nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions.
4. The conceptualist view: there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
5. Referent: the object in the world of experience; and thought or reference refers to concept.
6. Contextualism: meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context---elements closely linked with language behavior.
7. Behaviorism: to define the meaning of a language form as the ?° situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.?±
8. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
9. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.w
10. Synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning.
11. The classification of synonymy:
a. dialectal synonyms---synonyms used in different regional dialects
b. stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style
c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
d. collocational synonyms
e. semantically different synonyms￡¨amaze,astound￡?
12. Polysemy￡¨?àò????ó￡?: the same one word may have more than one meaning.
13. Homonymy(í?ò?òìòé￡?í?D?òìò?): the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
14. Homophones(í?ò?òìòé): two words are identical in sound
15. Homographs￡¨í?D?òìò?): two words are identical in spelling
16. Complete hemonyms: two words are identical in both sound and spelling.
17. Hyponymy￡¨??ò?1??μ￡?: the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
18. Superordinate￡¨é?ò?′ê￡?: the word which is more general in meaning.
19. Hyponyms￡¨??ò?′ê￡?: the more specific words.
20. Hyponyms of the same superorinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
21. Antonymy: words that are opposite in meaning.
22. The classification of antonymy:
a. gradable antonyms: some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is
a matter of degree.
b. Complementary antonyms: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
c. Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of
a relational opposites.
23. Sense relations between sentences:
a. X is synonymous with Y. in terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.
b. X is inconsistent with Y. if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.
c. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X) if X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.
d. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) if X is true, Y must be true, if X is false, Y is still ture
e. X is a contradiction. When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false.
f. X is semantically anomalous, when X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction.
24. Componential analysis: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
25. Semantic features: the approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components.
26. The advantage of componential analysis: specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
27. Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.
28. Before looking at the analysis of sentence meaning, two points about sentence meaning need be clarified.
a. the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total the meanings of all its components, that is , the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words.
b. The second thing about sentence meaning is that there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.
29. Selectional restrictions: whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.
30. All forms of sentence: statements, imperative and interrogative forms.
31. A predication consists of argument and predicate.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics
1. Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
2. The distinguish between semantics and pragmatics: whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.
3. Context: is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
4. The meaning of a sentence: studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
5. The meaning of an utterance: is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
6. Speech act theory: is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.
7. The distinction between constatives￡¨Deê??°ó?￡? and performatives￡¨DDê??°ó?￡?: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.
8. According to Austin?ˉs new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
9. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
10. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker?ˉs intention, it is the act performed in saying something.
11. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
12. Five types of Searl:
a. representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.
b. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
c. Commissives￡ocommitting the speaker himself to some future course of action.
d. Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stat
e.
e. Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
13. Cooperative principle, abbreviated as CP: make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are
engaged.
14. The four maxims under this general principle:
a. the maxim of quantity:
A. make your contribution as informative as required.
B. Do not make your contribution more imformative than is required.
b. the maxim of quality
A. do not say what you believe to be false.
B. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
c. the maxim of relation: be relevant.
d. The maxim of manner:
A. avoid obscurity of expression
B. avoid ambiguity
C. be brief
D. be orderly
chapter 7 language change
1. Sound change: sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language.
2. Morphological and syntactic change
a. change in ?°agreement rule?±
b. change in negation rule
c. process of simplification: there may be a loss of grammatical distinctions, through a process of simplification.
d. Loss of inflections:
3. Vocabulary change include:
a. addition of new words
b. loss of words
c. changes in the meaning of words.
4. Addition of new words:
a. coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose.
b. Clipped words￡¨ê???′ê￡?: the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.
c. Blending￡¨?ìo?′ê￡?: a word formed by combining parts of other words.
d. Acronyms￡¨′óD′×???′ê￡?: words derived from the initials of several words.
e. Back-formation￡¨??11′ê￡?: New words may be coined from already existing words by ?°subtracting?± an affix thought to be part of the old word.
f. Functional shift: words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.
g. Borrowing￡¨íaà′′ê￡?: when different cultures come into contact, words are often ?°borrowed?± from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word.
5. Loss of words
6. Changes in the meaning of words:
a. widening of meaning:
b. narrowing of meaning
c. meaning shift
7. the influence of science and technology
a . space travel
b. computer and internet language
c. ecology: the study of the relationship between plants, animals, people, and their environment, and the balances between these relationships.
Chapter 8 Language and society
1. sociolinguistics: sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
2. Indications of the inter-relationship between language and society:
a. while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.
b. Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently.
c. To some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.
4. Speech community: in sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study.
5. Speech variety: or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
6. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies:
a. a bird?ˉs-eye view: we can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations.
b. A worm?ˉs-eye view: to look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it.
7. Regional dialect: a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
8. Social-class dialect: or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
9. Idiolect: a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 10. Ethnic dialect: a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.
11. The features of Black English: phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical level.
12. A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word.
13. A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the
14. deletion of the link verb ?°be?±.
15. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions.
16. Register: the variety of language related to one?ˉs occupation.
17. Field of discourse: refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication.
18. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.
19. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with ?°how?± communication is carried our. Fundamental to the mode of discourse is the distinction between speaking and writing.
20. The features of the context: field, tenor, mode.
21. Distinguishes five stages of formality: intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen,
22. Standard dialect: a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of
a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
23. Pidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
24. Creole: when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language.
25. Bilingualism??ó????ó: it has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.
26. Five major variables to be considered in predicting language usage in Paraguay:
a. location of the interaction
b. formality-informality of the interaction
c. degree of intimacy of the speakers.
d. Degree of seriousness of the discourse
e. Sex of the participants.
27. Diglossia??ó? ??????: a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism.
Chapter 9 language and culture
1. culture: in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture.
2. two types of culture: material and spiritual.
3. linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently.
4. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(SWH): Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people?ˉs perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought.
5. Two different ways of hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people?ˉs thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the later.
6. Two important insights of SWH:
a. there is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.
b. More than in Whorf?ˉs days, however, we recognize how important context is in complimenting the meanings encoded in the language.
7. linguistic evidence of cultural differences:
a. greetings and terms of address: the extension of kinship terms is
a feature of Chinese culture.
b. Thanks and compliments: people in the west tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that the westerners tend to accept thanks and compliments more directly and frankly than we Chinese do.
c. Color words: for people all over the world the colors of the rainbow are the same, but this does not necessarily follow that people speaking different languages divide the color spectrum in the same way or use terms that designate the same range of hue.
d. Privacy and taboos: the westerners place a high value on privacy.
e. Rounding off numbers: the way a speech community rounds off its numbers is not haphazard, rather, it is explainable as interplay between language and culture. Members of a speech community regards as significant.
f. Words and cultural-specific connotations: connotations means the implication of a word, apart from its primary meaning?±. The semantic differences between two languages may be grouped as the following: 1) a term in one language that does not have a counterpart in another language.
2) Words or terms in both languages that appear to refer to the same
object or concept on the surface, but which actually refer to quite different things.
3) Things or concepts that are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by many more terms in the another language, that is finer distinctions exist in the other language.
4) Terms that have more or less the same primary meaning, but which have considerably different secondary or additional meanings.
g. cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors: different languages may reflect different cultures, different cultures entail different language expressions. Idioms, proverbs and sayings and metaphors in different languages, derived from different origins, also demonstrate cultural differences. Different languages may have different idioms owing to different living environments, social conventions and literature tradition.
8. cultural overlap: despite the cultural differences, there exist a greater or lesser degree of cultural overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.
9. cultural diffusion: through communication, some elements of culture
A enter culture
B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly.
10. cross-cultural communication: communication between people from different cultures, which implies a comparison between cultures.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d011418229.html,nguage acquisition: the child?ˉs acquisition of his mother tongue,
i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
12. traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.
A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child?ˉs attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward. The child learns the language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming.
13. the key to language development in this theory: imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization.
14. language acquisition device(LAD): an imaginary ?°black box?± existing somewhere in the human brain. The ?° black box?± is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.
15. children need access to the samples of natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language?ˉs structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system
语言学概论复习大纲讲课讲稿
语言学概论复习大纲
导言 一、解释以下概念并指出其区别 语言学语文学小学 二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用？ 第一章第一节 一、名词解释 语言的主观性 二、举例说明 1、语言的两大社会功能 2、信息传递中接受存在的方式 三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、举例说明：语言的民族性 三、简答 1、语言和思维的关系 2、语言思维功能的生理基础 3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点 四、论述 1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致
2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性 第二章第一节 一、名词解释 1、征候 2、心理现实 二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题） 1、语言和言语 2、征候与符号 3、语言与符号 三、简答 1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（分点答题不举例） 2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的” 第二章第二节 一、名词解释 1、语言符号的线条性 2、语言符号的组合关系 3、语言符号的聚合关系 二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性 三、论述 1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置 2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转
第二章第三章 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、简答 1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持 2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、论述 人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别 第三章第一节 一、名词解释 1、音标 2、国际音标 二、辨析区别和联系 语音学和音乐学 三、简答 1、语音与自然界声音的异同 2、语音学研究的诸方面 第三章第二节 一、名词解释 1、纯音
语言学纲要期末复习重点整理
1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 （1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。 （2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 （1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 （2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。 （3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同
样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 （1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。 （2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。 （3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。 （4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 （1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 （2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
英语语言学词汇汇总
现代语言学术语总结 A abbreviation缩写法 acculturation语言文化移入 acoustic phonetics声学语言学 acronym词首字母缩略词 address term称谓语 addresser发话人 addressee受话人 adjacency毗邻 Adjacency Condition毗邻条件 Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数 Affix词缀 Affixation加词缀法 Affricate塞擦音 Afroasiatic非亚语系 agreement rule一致关系规则 allophone音位变体 alveolar齿龈音 alveolus齿龈 angular gyrus角形脑回 antonymy反义现象 antonym反以词 apocope词尾音脱落 aphasia失语症 aphasic失语症患者 applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性 argument论元 articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项 aspiration送气 assimilation同化 approximation近似化 auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系 B Babbling咿呀学语 back-formation逆向构词法 back vowel后元音 Behaviorism行为主义 Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学
语言学概论复习资料资料
语言学概论复习资料 1、人类的语言与动物的“语言”有何本质区别？ 动物之间也有相互用来交际的信号，但这跟人类的语言有本质的区别，人类语言具有如下特点： 1、功能开放：米、分米、厘米、微米、纳米 2、构造灵巧：音位，音节语素，词，句子 3、需要学习 2、人类语言构造灵巧的三个条件: 任意性：保证任何事物都能用语言表达 离散性：保证了语言单位自由拆装 层次性：电+影电影彩+色彩色 电影+彩色彩色电影 3、荀子说：“名无固宜，约之以命。约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。”你如何 理解？ 语言符号系统具有任意性，音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种人为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多动选择的可能性。因此说“名无固宜，约之以命”但命名一旦成立就具有强制性。因此说，“约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。” 4、什么是语言符号的任意性原则？你如何理解？请联系语言事实加以论述。 语言符号的任意性是指音义之间不具有内在的，本质的，必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高原则。1、形式内容的联系是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。如“马”“车”对这两个语素本身的例句，现代词源学还没有找到一致的认识，因此他们是任意约定的。2、一旦形成后对个人具有强制性。3、非本质的联系不意味
着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。人、鸡、鸭。布谷鸟。联系是成立的，但不是本质的。 5、关于幼儿是如何习得语言的有哪几种假说？试加评述。 1、模仿说：认为幼儿是通过摹仿听到的语句而学会说话的。通过成人的重复，更 正、赞许等反馈，正确的说法得到强化，由此而形成幼儿的说话习惯。 2、天赋说：以乔姆斯基为代表，认为有一种可遗传的“语言习得机制”，儿童在后 天具体语言输入刺激下，经过语言习得机制习得一种具体的语言。区分语言能力和语言行为，儿童习得母语学的是抽象的规则，即语言能力，虽然他们接触到的是具体的语言行为。 3、认知说：儿童的语言习得机制是伴随着认知能力而发展起来，语言习得能力仅 是认知能力的一部分。斯洛宾、皮亚杰认为，不能脱离智力发展的全局来考查语言习得。如先有判断事物大小的能力，然后才会有“狗比猫大”直螺纹ideas 语言表达。儿童学话的早期似有此种情况，但两者都比较发达后，关系就比较复杂，语言也可影响认知能力。 各学说局部真理，互相补充。 6、语言作为一个符号系统有哪些特性？ 1、任意性：音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的 联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高准则。 1）形式内容的恋歌是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。 2）一旦形成后对个人具有强制性 3）非本质的联系不意味着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。 2、线条性 3、层次性：语言单位具有层层“套装”的性质。小的组成大的，大的组成更大的： 我们学习语法。 4、系统性：语言符号相互联系、相互制约形成一个整体的性质。其中聚合关系和 组合关系是两种最重要最基本的关系。 7、简述语言和言语的关系？
(完整word版)语言学概论期末复习重点
名词解释 1、词汇 是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇 2、音位的自由变体 有些音位在同一语言环境中，可以自由替换，而又不能区别词义，不受前面其他音位的影响，没有任何条件的限制 3，语言 语言是社会现象，是社会交际工具。同时是心里现象，是人类思维的工具 4，自源文字 是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字 5，同化和异化 同化现象是指，一个音位受相邻音位的影响儿而又在某个区别特征或音位整体上的趋同现象；异化现象，是指两个本来相同或相近的音位，如果连着发音有困难，则其中一个发生变化，变得跟邻近的音不同或不相近 6，黏着语 没有词的内部屈折，每一个语法范畴义都有一个粘附语素来表示，而一个粘附语素也只表示一种语法范畴义的语言类型 7，语音 即语言的声音，是语言符号系统的载体，人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言定义。语言依靠语音实现他的社会功能 8音质音位 以因素为材料，从音质的角度分析音位 9形态 同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态 10仿意词 是分别将外语中的构词材料按外语中的次序译成本民族语，使构词成分的选择和构词结构的选择与外语一一对应 12区别特征 具有区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征，也叫区别性特征 13符号 社会全体成员共同约定，用来表示某种意义的记号、标记、它包括形式和内容两个方面。它的作用是指称社会现实现象 14，小学 中国传统文学又称小学，包括分析字形的文字学，研究字音的音韵学，解释字义的训诂学，它们是围绕解释和解读先秦典籍展开研究的，因此又被称为经学的附庸 15，言内意外 用语言表达思想时留下的一些意义空白或将真实意义隐含在另一种说法中，或用一种意义采用不同说法以获取不同的效果 16文字 有两个意思，一个是指一个一个的字，一是指语言的视觉符号体系 17国际音标 是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，不带民族特色。它的制定原则是：
语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释（4*6=24） 1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works. 同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。
(完整版)语言学组合与聚合总结
一、组合关系和和聚合关系的提出 组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔提出来的现代语言学结构主义的一个重要原理。 组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。例如"学习外语"，"学习"与"外语"组合，形成述宾关系。 聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。例如"学习外语"，其中"学习"可以用"研究"替换。 语言的组合关系说明了语言结构的规则，语言的聚合关系说明了替换规则。 二、语音的组合与聚合关系 语音中的每一个音素（音位），它总是处在相邻的音素之间。通过音素组合关系的研究，建立起来音位。 例如：北京话有几个与[a]发音比较接近的元音，从音质角度看，它们是不同的音，它们分别为[a]、[ɑ]、[A]、[ε]。[a]只出现在i和n 的前面，如bai 、ai、ban、an等；[ɑ]只出现在u和ng的前面，如gao、yang、ao、gang等；[A]只出现在音节的最后，如jia、hua、ba 等；。根据这些组合规律我们就可以把它们归纳成为一个音位[a]。汉语拼音方案就是按音位设计的。
聚合关系是出现在一定组合中相同位置上的各语言成分所具有的类聚会同的关系。聚合关系是在对立互补原则的基础上建立的，我们把能够出现在一个音节开头的那个辅音归成一类，那就是声母。声母之间是聚合关系。如有的辅音只出现在i和ü前面，像j、q、x，我们把这三个辅音看作是一个小的类聚，它们在发音上有共同的特点称为舌面音。其他如舌尖前音、舌尖中音、舌尖后音、双唇音、舌根音等类聚。现代汉语中的辅音大部分有双向的聚合。我们可以看下面的z c s 、zh ch sh、j q x。 从可以看到，横向的三个辅音也分别是一种聚合，第一行是舌尖前音的聚合，第二行是舌尖后音的聚合，第三行是舌面音的聚合；同样纵向的三个音也是一种聚合，第一列的三个音是不送气塞擦音的聚合，第二列是送气塞擦音的聚合，第三列是擦音的聚合。 三、词（语素）的组合关系和聚合关系 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体，或者说是最小的语言单位。在语言中，语素不可再分，因为切分语素得到的是音素。语素和语素可组合成词语。 语素的组合和聚合不像语音那样有严整的规律。语素的组合有许多制约的因素。语素组合比较有规律的是一些虚语素，即词缀。如现代汉语中的“阿”总是和表人的语素组合在一起，构成“阿公、阿婆阿Q、阿姨”等。与此类似的还有，例如：子——矮子、才子、担子、胆子、桌子。
00541语言学概论复习题及答案
语言学概论 复习题 （课程代码 00541） 、单项选择题 1．主张把语言和言语分开的代表学者是 【 】 A ． 乔姆斯基 B ． 索绪尔 C ． 布隆菲尔德 D ． 洪堡特 2． 中国将传统的音韵、文字、 训诂、虚词等研究统称为 【 】 A ．小学 B ．经学 C .语言学 D . 文字学 3． 音高主要决定于 【 】 A ．发音体振动的振幅 B ?发音体振动的频率 C ?发音体振动的时间 D .发音体振动的声波形式 4． 汉语普通话的j 1 su cn j 1（计算机）可以切分岀的音素数量为 【 】 A ? 3 个 B ? 6个 C ．7 个 D ． 8个 5． 汉语普通话语音系统中，可以将拼音 b 和p 区分开来的区别特征是 [ 】 A ．送气与不送气 B ． 清音与浊音 C ．双唇音与舌面音 D ． 塞音与塞擦音 6． 北京话中将“慢” [man]+ “慢儿” [mar] 读作“慢慢儿” [mai mar] 属于语流音变中的【 】 A ．同化 B 异化 C ．弱化 D ．脱落 7． 下列不是成语的是 【 】 A ．过河拆桥 B ．风风火火 C ．醉翁之意不在酒 D ． 爱屋及乌 8． 在汉语中管某种东西叫“书 sh u” 英语中叫“ book ”， 这反应了语汇在产生时的【 】 A ．理据性 B 普遍性 C ．任意性 D ． 民族性 9． 下列属于借词的是 【 】 A ．尴尬 B 看好 C ．拜会 D ．袈裟 10 ．下列属于体词属性范畴的是 【 】 A .体 B .态 C ?数 D ?时 11 ．“三人行必有我师”是《论语》中的名句，它至今仍被人广泛引用，且理解起来不大费 力， 这是由于语言的 【 】 A ．抽象性 B ．递归 性 C .系统性 D .稳定性 12 ．词义最基本和最核心的部分是 【 】 A ．通俗意义 B 非通俗意义 C .理性意义 D 非理性意义 13. 把句子分成“单句”和“复句” ， 这种分类是 【 】 A ．句子的句型类 B .句子的句式类 C .句子的功能类 D ?句子的繁简类 14. “天气凉了”和“这汤太热，把它凉一凉”中的“凉”是 【 】 A ?冋音关系 B ．多义关系 C .同形关系 D ?同义关系 15. 文字起源于 【 】
语言学概论期末复习要点
语言学概论(本科)期末复习要点 导言部分 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 1．语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学，它以人类的语言为研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。 2．中国、印度、希腊－罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3．我国的小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 1．语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切，不仅与社会科学有联系，而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。语言学是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 2．语言交际的过程：语言交际过程可分“编码－发送－传递－接收－解码”五个阶段。 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学可以分为以下几类：共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分，如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学（例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等）、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等，普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。 四、语言学流派 比较重要的语言学流派主要有：历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。 第一章语言的社会功能 本章需要明确的要点是：第一，语言的两大社会功能；第二，语言是一种社会现象。第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1．语言的交际功能：语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。 2．语言是一种社会现象：弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵，语言不是自然现象，而是社会现象，是一定社会的产物，同社会的关系非常密切。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。语言是人类最重要的交际工具 第二节语言是思维的工具 1．语言和思维的关系 思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行，思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。 2．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同 本节其它一些问题可一般了解：一、儿童学习语言的过程，二、思维不能离开语言的实验根据，三、关于聋哑人的思维，聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响，四、人类思维在机器中的再现。 第二章语言是符号系统 本章有三大要点：语言是符号、语言的任意性特点、语言的层次性第一节语言符号的性质和特点一、什么是符号 1．符号的含义：符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，它包括形式和意义两个方面，指称现实现象。如： 2．符号的构成：符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。 二、语言符号及其特点 1．语言符号：从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面。注意语言符号同一般符号的区别。 2．语言符号的特点：语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点 第二节语言符号的系统性一、语言的层级体系 弄清楚语言层级，各个层级的构成及其特点，以及语言二层性的核心。 二、组合关系和聚合关系 1．组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（比如音位和音位、词与词等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系，也
简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
语言学心得
语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日
《语言学概论》复习
语言学概论复习题（附考试样卷） 一、举例解释下列名词（每词4分，共20分） 1．组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（如音位与音位、词与词等等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。例如"看"与"电影"组合成"看电影"，互相之间具有支配关系。 2．音位变体：音位变体就是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。例如/a/音位，在音节ang中实际念α，在音节jia中实际念A。 3．词干：一个词的词根和词缀合称词干。例如teachers除去s外，其余部分就是词干。 4．拼音文字：用字母记录语言中的音节或音位的文字，文字体系比较简明，一个词的拼写反映出语言中的一个词的读音，例如英文就是拼音文字，单词man三个字母构成，与三个音标对应。 5．词语替换：词语替换就是用一个名称代替原来的名称，但所指称的现实现象没有发生改变，例如过去叫"戏子"，现在叫做"演员"。 二、填空（每空1分，共10分） 1．（历史比较语言学）的建立是语言学走上独立发展道路的一个标志。 2．通过（聚合关系），我们可以使用句型造出许许多多的句子来。 3．音位可分两大类，例如汉语中的声调是（非音质音位）。 4．根据在词中的作用，语素可以分为三类，例如"I am going to buy some books"，其中单词books中的语素"s"是（词尾）。 5．"漂亮的景色"和"景色漂亮"的语法意义不同，造成这种不同的语法手段是（词序）。 6．英语动词be有八种形式，其过去时的复数形式是（were）。 7．词义的引申有两种方式，例如"病毒"，本义是指"比病菌小、多用电子显微镜才能看见的病原体"，引申义指计算机病毒，即破坏计算机系统的一种程序，这种引申方式是（隐喻）。 8．汉字的发展趋势是（由繁趋简）。 9．语言在不同行业、不同阶层等社会因素方面发生变化，由此产生了（社会方言）。 10．词义会不断地发生变化，例如英语单词deer，过去泛指动物，现在只表示鹿，这种意义变化的方式叫做（缩小）。 三、选择题（每小题2分，共10分） 说明：每题只有一个正确答案，请将正确答案的字母序号填到题中横线上。 1．下列说法只有（A）是正确的。 A．拉斯克是历史比较语言学的代表人物。 B．索绪尔的代表著作是《语言论》。 C．语言的组合关系说明学习一种语言规则是可以类推的。 D．语言的任意性特点说明每个人都一改造语言规则的自由。 2．用严式国际音标给汉字注音，只有（D）组要用到音标a。 A．装腔王高笑B．烟元面全捐 C．家牙打哈抓D．盖反外丹抬 3．分析句子"我们天天看见从东方的山峰后面升起来的太阳"，能得到的词组成分是（D）。 A．天天看见从东方的山峰后面。 B．我们天天看见。 C．升起来的太阳。 D．东方的山峰后面。 4．下列各种说法只有（C）是正确的。
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
语言学重点概念总结
Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.
语言学总结
In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d011418229.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d011418229.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak