专业英语 Lesson 1

Lesson 1

Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. This includes all chemical compounds except the many which are based upon chains or rings of carbon atoms, which are termed organic compounds and are studied under the separate heading of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.

1 Key concepts

The bulk of inorganic compounds occur as salts, the combination of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of cations are sodium Na+, and magnesium Mg2+ and examples of anions are oxide O2? and chloride Cl?. As salts are neutrally charged, these ions form compounds such as sodium oxide Na2O or magnesium chloride MgCl2. The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent elements.

Important classes of inorganic compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates and the halides. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points. Inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Another important feature is their solubility in e.g. water, and ease of crystallization. Where some salts (e.g. NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g. SiO2) are not.

The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry.

When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry. In a more general definition, an acid can be any chemical species capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a Lewis base. As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions.

Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals. Soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes (sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the polyphosphate backbone in DNA).

The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrite for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as

vanadium(V) oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry such as lithium aluminium hydride.

Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry. These fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies.

2 Descriptive inorganic chemistry

Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping compounds by their structural similarities. When studying inorganic compounds, one often encounters parts of the different classes of inorganic chemistry (an organometallic compound is characterized by its coordination chemistry, and may show interesting solid state properties).

Different classifications are:

◆Coordination compounds

Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to “lone pairs” of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl?, and CN?. In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The “metal” usually is a metal from the groups 3-13, as well as the trans-lanthanides and trans-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes.

The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of [Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)3]6+, an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds. A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination chemistry.

Examples: [Co(EDTA)]?, [Co(NH3)6]3+, TiCl4(THF)2.

◆Main group compounds

These species feature elements from groups 1, 2 and 13-18 (excluding hydrogen) of the periodic table. Due to their often similar reactivity, the elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are also generally included.

Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of chemistry, e.g. elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus. Experiments on oxygen, O2, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios. The discovery of a practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber in the early 1900’s deeply impa cted mankind, demonstrating

the significance of inorganic chemical synthesis. Typical main group compounds are SiO2, SnCl4, and N2O. Many main group compounds can also be classed as “organometallic”, as they contain organic groups, e.g. B(CH3)3). Main group compounds also occur in nature, e.g. phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic. Conversely, organic compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as “inorganic”, such as the fullerenes, buckytubes and binary carbon oxides.

?Examples: tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4, diborane B2H6, silicones, buckminsterfullerene C60.

◆Transition metal compounds

Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main group compounds.

Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g. TiCl4) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt. A range of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin.

?Examples: iron pentacarbonyl, titanium tetrachloride, cisplatin

◆Organometallic compounds

Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group. The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides.

Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation, necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes. Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H2, and N2. Because the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry.

?Examples: Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3, Ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, Molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6, Diborane B2H6, Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) Pd[P(C6H5)3]4

◆Cluster compounds

Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other.

But metal-metal bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in “pure” inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters. Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule and a solid.

?Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2?, 4Fe-4S

◆Bioinorganic compounds

By definition, these compounds occur in nature, but the subfield includes anthropogenic species, such as pollutants (e.g. methylmercury) and drugs (e.g. Cisplatin). The field, which incorporates many aspects of biochemistry, includes many kinds of compounds, e.g. the phosphates in DNA, and also metal complexes containing ligands that range from biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such as humic acid, and to water (e.g. coordinated to gadolinium complexes employed for MRI). Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies.

?Examples: hemoglobin, methylmercury, carboxypeptidase

◆Solid state compounds

This important area focuses on structure, bonding, and the physical properties of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Included in solid state chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives. Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science.

?Examples: silicon chips, zeolites, YBa2Cu3O7

3 Characterization of inorganic compounds

Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis. Older methods tended to examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity. With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids. Often these measurements provide insights relevant to theoretical models. For example, measurements on the photoelectron spectrum of methane demonstrated that describing the bonding by the two-center, two-electron bonds predicted between the carbon and hydrogen using Valence Bond Theory is not appropriate for describing ionisation processes in a simple way. Such

insights led to the popularization of molecular orbital theory as fully delocalised orbitals are a more appropriate simple description of electron removal and electron excitation.

Commonly encountered techniques are:

?X-ray crystallography: This technique allows for the 3D determination of molecular structures.

?Various forms of spectroscopy

o Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy: Historically, this has been an important tool, since many inorganic compounds are strongly colored

o NMR spectroscopy: Besides 1H and 13C many other “good” NMR nuclei (e.g. 11B, 19F, 31P, and 195Pt) give important information on compound properties and structure. Also

the NMR of paramagnetic species can result in important structural information.

Proton NMR is also important because the light hydrogen nucleus is not easily detected

by X-ray crystallography.

o Infrared spectroscopy: Mostly for absorptions from carbonyl ligands

o Electron-nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy

o M?ssbauer spectroscopy

o Electron-spin resonance: ESR (or EPR) allows for the measurement of the environment of paramagnetic metal centres.

Electrochemistry: Cyclic voltammetry and related techniques probe the redox characteristics of compounds.

第一课

无机化学

无机化学是一门涉及化学性质和无机化合物反应的化学学科分支。无机化学包括了所有除了那些基于链或环的碳原子的被称为有机化合物，并在有机化合物的独立标题下研究有机化学的化合物。两学科之间的区别并不是绝对的,两者之间有许多重叠,最重要的是在有机金属化学的分支学科上。

1．主要概念

无机化合物主要是盐，它是通过阴、阳离子通过离子键键合形成。例如：阳离子钠Na+和镁Mg2+分别与阴离子氧O2—-和氯Cl-形成化合物。盐都是电中性的,如离子化合物氧化钠Na2O或氯化镁MgCl2。这些离子的电性可以由他们的氧化态和易于形成可以从他们母体元素中的电离电位和电子亲和力推断出来的来描述。

一类重要的无机化合物是氧化物,碳酸盐、硫酸盐和卤化物。许多无机化合物都具有很高的熔点。固态无机盐是典型的不良导体。另一个重要性质是他们在水中的溶解度和容易结晶。有些盐(例如NaCl)极易溶于水,另一些(例如二氧化硅)是不易溶于水的。

最简单的无机反应是复分解反应，即在两种盐的混合物中，离子相互交换但不发生电荷及化合价的改变。在氧化还原反应中，氧化剂的化合价降低，还原剂的化合价升高，最终的结果是发生了。交换电子也可以间接发生，例如电池——电化学中一个很重要的概念。

在酸碱化学中，反应物包含氢原子的反应可以通过交换质子发生。更广泛的定义就是：在任何化学种类里能结合电子对的被称为路易斯酸,相反的，任何提供电子对的分子被称为路易斯碱。在精细酸碱反应中,软硬酸碱理论考虑到离子的极化性和离子大小。

无机化合物存在于天然矿物质中。例如土壤和黄铁矿中含有硫化亚铁，石膏中含有硫酸钙。无机化合物应用于多个方面：作为生物大分子，作为电解液(氯化钠)，作为储能物(ATP)或作为结构骨架（DNA 骨架中的多磷酸盐)。

最重要的人工合成的无机化合物是通过哈伯合成氨法合成的，用于土壤施肥的亚硝酸盐铵。无机化合物可以用来合成催化剂如五氧化二钒和三氯化钛或有机化学试剂如铝锂氢化物。

无机化学分为有机金属化学、簇化学和生物无机化学。这些领域在无机化学的研究中是非常活跃的，旨在研究新的催化剂、超导体和治疗方法。

2．定性无机化学

定性无机化学主要讲的是无机化合物基于其性质的分类。一部分是根据化合物中重元素在元素周期表中的位置分类的，一部分是根据他们的结构的相似性来分类化合物的。当学习无机化合物时，经常面临不同种类的无机化学(有机金属化合物的特点是配位化学，显示出了有趣的固态性质)。

不同的分类:

配位化合物

经典配位化合物的特征是金属结合位于由主族原子形成的配位体

上的孤对电子，例如水、NH3、Cl -

和CN

-

。在现代配位化学中，几乎

所有的有机和无机化合物都可以作为配位体。前面所说的“金属”往往是３～１３族的金属，也可以是过渡镧系和过渡锕系的金属，但从某种角度看,所有化合物都可以被描述为配位复合体。

配位复合物的立体化学是相当丰富的。由温纳斯分离出的两种对映体——[Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)3]6+,早期证明了手性不是有机化合物所固有的。在这个专业，典型的主题就是超分子配位化学。

?例如:[Co(EDTA)],[Co(NH3)6]3 +,TiCl4(THF)2。

主族化合物

这些种类的特征元素是元素周期表中1~2族和13~18族(不含氢)的元素。由于他们常有相似的反应活性,第3族元素（钪，钇，镧)和第12族(锌、镉，汞)也通常包括在内。

主族化合物从化学发展的开端就被人们所熟知，如化学元素硫和可以蒸馏的白磷。拉瓦锡和普里斯特利对氧的实验不仅找到了一种重要的双原子气体，而且发现了通过化学计量数之比来描述化合物和化学反应的方法。早在1900年，卡尔?博世和弗里茨哈伯用铁做催化剂合成氨的实践深深地影响了人类，展示出了无机化学合成的重要性。典型的主族元素化合物有氧化二氮，二氧化硅和四氯化锡。许多主族化合物也可以归类为有机金属化合物，因为他们含有机基团如甲硼烷。

主族化合物也存在于自然界中，例如DNA中含有磷酸盐，因此可以归为生物无机化合物。相反地,有机缺氢配位化合物可以归类为“无机”,例如,富勒烯,二倍碳氧化物。

?例子: 氮化硫，乙硼烷，,硅酮和碳六十。

过渡金属化合物

含有4~11族金属的化合物是过渡金属化合物。含有3~12族金属的化合物有时也被归为过渡金属化合物，但通常他们属于主族化合物一类。

过渡金属化合物展现出丰富的配位化学,从四面体的钛到平面的镍，再到八面体的钴的化合物有存在很大的不同。一系列的过渡金属存在于重要生物化合物中，如血红蛋白中的铁。

?例子:羰基铁，四氯化钛，顺氯氨铂

有机金属化合物

通常,有机金属化合物含有金属-碳-氢键。这些金属可以是主族元素金属也可以是过渡金属。操作上来说，有机金属化合物更广泛的定义中叶包含高亲脂性的复合物例如金属羰基盐甚至金属醇盐。

有机金属化合物被认为是一种特殊范畴,因为有机配位体经常对水解反应和氧化反应十分敏感。因此，有有机金属化合物参与的制备复合体的方法比传统制备方法更加专业和创新。合成方法，尤其是能够在低配位能的溶剂中控制条件，使弱配位能的配位体比如碳氢化合物，

氢气，氮气能够发生反应。因为从某种意义上讲，配位体是属于石油化学方面的材料，因此有机金属化合物化学已大大得益于它与产业。簇化合物

各种类型的化合物中都存在簇化合物。根据公认的定义,簇化合物最小限度包括三个直接相互结合的原子。但是金属-金属键与原子-金属键的键和也和这个概念高度相关。簇化合物存在于“纯”无机系统,有机金属化学，主族化学和生物无机化学。簇化合物与大颗粒固体之间的区别日益模糊。这个界限是在化学基础或纳米科学和纳米技术上研究硒化镉的簇化合物的量子尺寸效应。因此,大量的簇化合物可以被描述成分子和固体之间约束原子与中间体品质的排列。

生物无机化合物

根据定义,这类化合物存在于自然界中，但是其分支也包括人工合成领域，例如污染物(甲基汞)和药物(顺氯氨铂)。该领域包含了生物化学的许多方面、包括多种化合物，例如在DNA中的磷酸盐，还有一些金属配合物，这些配合物的配位体的来源从生物高分子，普通多肽到含糊不清的种类比如腐殖酸，水。传统的生物无机化学重点研究与呼吸有关的蛋白质中电子和能量的转移。药用无机化学的研究包括实际应用中诊断和治疗的必要与非必要元素两大种类。

?例子:血红蛋白、甲基汞、羟肽酶。

固态化合物

这个重要领域的研究集中在材料的结构、结合键、物理性质。由于固体的组元之间存在相互作用，所以在实际应用中,固体无机化学使用一些技术如结晶学来更深的了解固体材料的性质。固态化学包括金属及其合金或金属间化合物衍生品。固态化学的相关学科有浓缩物质物理学、矿物学、和材料科学。

?例子:硅片，沸石分子筛。

3无机化合物的表征

由于元素的多样性和相对应的性质的多样性导致了很多派生物的产生，因此，无机化学的分析与许多分析方法紧密联系在了一起。旧的分析方法往往倾向于研究物体普通性质比如溶液的电导率，熔点，溶解度和酸度。随着量子理论的出现与相应的电子仪器的生产，人们已经开始用新工具来探测研究固体与无机小分子的电学性质。这些测量通常能够提供正确的相关理论模型。例如：对甲烷进行光电子谱测量，证明了用价键理论来预测碳原子和氢原子之间的结合方式是两个中心与两个电子相结合的描述，不能用来描述电离过程。这样的认识导致分子轨道理论的普及，因为富电子离域轨道更适合用来描述电子的逸出和电子的激发。

常见的表征技术有：

?x -射线结晶衍射:这项技术从三维方向来确定的分子结构。

?各种形式的光谱研究

o紫外-可见光谱:从历史上来看，由于许多无机化合物具有强烈的色彩，因此紫外光谱成为一种很重要的分析工具；

o核磁共振光谱：除了1H和13C以外，还有许多其他的“好”核磁共振核(例如11B, 19F，31P和195Pt )可以提供化合物特征和结构的重要信息。通常顺磁性核磁共振也提供带来重要的结构信息。质子核磁共振也很重要,因为轻氢核不易被x射线结晶衍射监测出。

o红外光谱:大多数从羰基配位点吸收。

o电子核双共振光谱。

o 莫斯鲍尔光谱。

o电子顺磁共振:ESR(或EPR)测试可以测定金属中心环境的顺磁性。?电化学:用循环伏安法和相关技术探索化合物的氧化还原特征。

【免费下载】食品专业英语教案professional communication

Lesson11 Professional Communication 1、Resume A resume is a brief summary of the details of a person’s life that are of interest to fellow professionals. It can make or break you in your search for a job or in application for an admission to a university. A strong resume may be the sole difference in getting a call for an interview. An effective resume may win you a job interview.1.1Q: What should be included in a resume?A: Almost every resume should include sections about objective, education, work experience, publications, personality.(1) Objective ：You should offer your goal of acquiring a certain position.(2) Education: Stress your high marks here. Remember to include any training related to the position you are applying. (3) Work experience: make certain you include your part-time job and summer employment you had during your college years in this section.(4) Personal: you should tell the employer about yourself. Share the information about what you like to do in your free time. This information offers areas the employer can talk about and lighten the interview.1.2如何写英文简历英文简历的格式结构包括页眉部分、教育背景、工作经历和个人资料四部分。1.2.1页眉部分 1）名字， 名字有7种写法：例如“李扬”： 1) Yang LI 2) YANG LI 3) Yang Li 4) Yang Li 5) Li, Yang 6) Li Yang 7) LI Yang 2）地址 北京以后要写中国，但不必用PRC 等，因为用 China 简单清楚。邮编的标准写法是放在省市名与国名之间， 起码放在China 之前，因为是中国境内的邮编。 、管路敷设技术通过管线敷设技术，不仅可以解决吊顶层配置不规范问题，而且可保障各类管路习题到位。在管路敷设过程中，要加强看护关于管路高中资料试卷连接管口处理高中资料试卷弯扁度固定盒位置保护层防腐跨接地线弯曲半径标高等，要求技术交底。管线敷设技术中包含线槽、管架等多项方式，为解决高中语文电气课件中管壁薄、接口不严等问题，合理利用管线敷设技术。线缆敷设原则：在分线盒处，当不同电压回路交叉时，应采用金属隔板进行隔开处理；同一线槽内，强电回路须同时切断习题电源，线缆敷设完毕，要进行检查和检测处理。、电气课件中调试对全部高中资料试卷电气设备，在安装过程中以及安装结束后进行高中资料试卷调整试验；通电检查所有设备高中资料试卷相互作用与相互关系，根据生产工艺高中资料试卷要求，对电气设备进行空载与带负荷下高中资料试卷调控试验；对设备进行调整使其在正常工况下与过度工作下都可以正常工作；对于继电保护进行整核对定值，审核与校对图纸，编写复杂设备与装置高中资料试卷调试方案，编写重要设备高中资料试卷试验方案以及系统启动方案；对整套启动过程中高中资料试卷电气设备进行调试工作并且进行过关运行高中资料试卷技术指导。对于调试过程中高中资料试卷技术问题，作为调试人员，需要在事前掌握图纸资料、设备制造厂家出具高中资料试卷试验报告与相关技术资料，并且了解现场设备高中资料试卷布置情况与有关高中资料试卷电气系统接线等情况，然后根据规范与规程规定，制定设备调试高中资料试卷方案。、电气设备调试高中资料试卷技术电力保护装置调试技术，电力保护高中资料试卷配置技术是指机组在进行继电保护高中资料试卷总体配置时，需要在最大限度内来确保机组高中资料试卷安全，并且尽可能地缩小故障高中资料试卷破坏范围，或者对某些异常高中资料试卷工况进行自动处理，尤其要避免错误高中资料试卷保护装置动作，并且拒绝动作，来避免不必要高中资料试卷突然停机。因此，电力高中资料试卷保护装置调试技术，要求电力保护装置做到准确灵活。对于差动保护装置高中资料试卷调试技术是指发电机一变压器组在发生内部故障时，需要进行外部电源高中资料试卷切除从而采用高中资料试卷主要保护装置。

会计专业英语期末试题 )

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食品专业英语

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专业英语期末试卷

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