语言学概论 第一章 第二章 名词解释

名词解释

第一章语言和语言学

1.能指：是语言学符号的物质实体，能够指称某种意义的成分。

2.所指：是语言学符号所指称的意义的内容，是语言学符号的物质实体。

3.普通语言学：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论称为普

通语言学。

4.语言学：语言学界把语言学的理论和具体成果用来为社会实际生活中的某个领

域服务，这是广义的应用语言学；狭义的应用语言学是指专门研究语言教学中

的理论和方法。

5.传统语言学：一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义

语言学以前的语言学。

第二章语音

6.语音：是由人的发声器官发出的，负载着一定的意义，并作为语言符号系统载

体的声音。

7.音质：又叫音色，指声音的个性或特色，他是一个声音区别于其他声音的基本

特征。

8.基音：一般的声音都是由发音体发出的一系列频率、振幅各不相同的振动复合

而成的。这些振动中有一个频率最低的振动，由他发出的声音叫做基音，其他

振动发出的声音叫做陪音。

9.语音：是有人的发音器官协同动作而产生的，人的发音器官及其运动时语音的

生理基础，决定着语音的生理特征。

10.算化音：鼻腔位于口腔的上方，上得将两者隔开。从咽腔同行相鼻腔的气流通

道由软胯与小舌控制。当软胯和小舌向后上升并抵住喉壁时，通向鼻腔的通道

被堵塞，气流只能从口腔呼出，这样发出的音叫口音，当软胯和小舌下垂时，

通向鼻腔的通道被打开。如果口腔内形成某种阻碍以致气流无法通过，气流就

会完全从鼻腔呼出，这样发出的音叫鼻音，如果口腔内未形成任何阻碍，气流

同时从鼻腔和口腔呼出，这样的发出的音叫算化音。

11.主动的发音器官：在人类的发音器官中，有些是能够活动的，如唇、舌头、软

胯、小舌、下跨、和声带等。叫做主动的发音器官，有些则不能活动，如上齿、

齿龈、硬跨等，叫做被动的发音体。

12.国际音标记录语音：有宽式与严式的区别。宽式标音是一种比较概况的标音，

与区别意义无关的发音特征和差别可不必反映，又可以叫做音位标音。严式标

音则是一种详尽反映发音特征和差别的标音，又可以叫做因素标音。

13.定位元音：在舌面元音中，八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。

14.鼻化元音：舌面元音、舌尖元音和卷舌元音都是单纯利用口腔作为共鸣腔发出

的元音，这种元音叫做口元音。利用口腔和鼻腔两个共鸣腔发出的元音叫鼻化

元音。

15.音位的条件变体：是指出现的语音环境各不相同而又同属一个音位的两个或几

个音素。音位的自由变体是指可以在同一语音环境里出现而又不能区别意义的

两个或几个音素。

《语言学纲要》名词解释_叶蜚声

《语言学纲要》名词解释 导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语 言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。 是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思

维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体， 即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。 取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是 不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形

式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼 此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。

胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d415364338.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d415364338.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.

医学统计学 名词解释+问答题-1

医学统计学 1、应用相对数时应注意的事项 ①计算相对数时分母不能太小； ②分析时不能以构成比代替率； ③当各分组的观察单位数不等时，总率（平均率）的计算不能直接将各分组的率相加求其平均； ④对比时应注意资料的可比性：两个率要在相同的条件下进行，即要求研究方法相同、研究对象同质、观察时间相等以及地区、民族、年龄、性别等客观条件一致，其他影响因素在各组的内部构成应相近； ⑤进行假设检验时，要遵循随机抽样原则，以进行差别的显著性检验。 2、正态分布的特点及其应用 性质：①两头低中间高，略呈钟形； ②只有一个高峰，在X=μ，总体中位数亦为μ； ③以均数为中心，左右对称； ④μ为位置参数，当σ恒定时，μ越大，曲线沿横轴越向右移动； σ为变异度参数，当μ恒定时，σ越大，表示数据越分散，曲线越矮胖，反之，曲线越瘦高； ⑤对于任何服从正态分布N（μ，σ2）的随机变量X作的线性变换，都会变换成u 服从于均数为0，方差为1的正态分布，即标准正态分布。 应用：①概括估计变量值的频数分布； ②制定参考值范围； ③质量控制； ④是许多统计方法的理论基础。 3、确定参考值范围的一般原则和步骤、方法 一般原则和步骤：①抽取足够例数的正常人样本作为观察对象； ②对选定的正常人进行准确而统一的测定，以控制系统误差； ③判断是否需要分组测定； ④决定取单侧范围值还是双侧范围值； ⑤选定适当的百分范围； ⑥选用适当的计算方法来确定或估计界值。 方法：①正态分布法：②百分位数法（偏态分布） 4、总体均数的可信区间与参考值范围的区别 概念：可信区间是按预先给定的概率来确定的未知参数μ的可能范围。 参考值范围是绝大多数正常人的某指标范围。所谓正常人，是指排除了影响所研究指标的疾病和有关因素的人；所谓绝大多数，是指范围，习惯上指正常人的95%。 计算公式：可信区间① ② ③ 参考值范围①正态分布 ②偏态分布 用途：可信区间用于总体均数的区间估计 参考值范围用于表示绝大多数观察对象某项指标的分布范围

英语语言学名词解释(2)

现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.

《语言学纲要》试题库剖析

绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。

医学统计学简答题

医学统计学简答题 1.简述标准差、标准误的区别与联系？ 区别：（1）含义不同：标准差S表示观察值的变异程度,描述个体变量值（x）之间的变异度大小,S越大,变量值（x）越分散；反之变量值越集中,均数的代表性越强。标准误..估计均数的抽样误差的大小,是描述样本均数之间的变异度大小,标准误越大,样本均数与总体均数间差异越大,抽样误差越大；反之,样本均数越接近总体均数,抽样误差越小。 （2）与n的关系不同： n增大时,S趋于σ（恒定）,标准误减少并趋于0（不存在抽样误差）。 （3）用途不同：标准差表示x的变异度大小、计算变异系数、确定医学参考值范围、计算标准误等,标准误用于估计总体均数可信区间和假设检验。 联系：二者均为变异度指标,样本均数的标准差即为标准误,标准差与标准误成正比。 2.简述假设检验的基本步骤。 1.建立假设,确定检验水准。 2.选择适当的假设检验方法,计算相应的检验统计量。 3.确定P值,下结论 3.正态分布的特点和应用：? 特点：?1、集中性：正态曲线的高峰位于正中央,即均数所在的位置；? 2、对称性：正态分布曲线位于直角坐标系上方，以x=u为中心,左右对称,曲线两端永远不与横轴相交； 3、均匀变动性：正态曲线由均数所在处开始,分别向左右两侧逐渐均匀下降；?

4、正态分布有两个参数,即均数μ和标准差σ,可记作N（μ,σ）：均数μ决定正态曲线的中心位置；标准差σ决定正态曲线的陡峭或扁平程度。σ越小,曲线越陡峭；σ越大,曲线越扁平； ?5、u变换：为了便于描述和应用,常将正态变量作数据转换；?? 应用：?1.估计医学参考值范围?2.质量控制?3.正态分布是许多统计方法的理论基础 4.简述参考值范围与均数的可信区间的区别和联系 可信区间与参考值范围的意义、计算公式和用途均不同。 ?1.从意义来看?95％参考值范围是指同质总体内包括95％个体值的估计范围,而总体均数95％可信区间是指?95％可信度估计的总体均数的所在范围? 2.从计算公式看?若指标服从正态分布,95％参考值范围的公式是：±1.96s。?总体均数95％可信区间的公式是：??前者用标准差,后者用标准误。前者用1.96,后者用α为0.05,自由度为v的t界值。 5.频数表的用途和基本步骤。 用途：（1）揭示资料的分布特征和分布类型；（2）便于进一步计算指标和分析处理；（3）便于发现某些特大或特小可疑值。 基本步骤：（1）求出极差；（2）确定组段，一般设8~15个组段；（3）确定组距；组距=R/组段数，但一般取一方便计算的数字；（4）列出各个组段并确定每一组段频数。 6.非参数统计检验的适用条件。 （1）资料不符合参数统计法的应用条件（总体为正态分布、且方差相等）或总体分布类型未知；（2）等级资料；（3）分布呈明显偏态又无适当的变量转换方法使之满足参数统计条件；（4）在资料满足参数检验的要求时，应首选参数法，以免降低检验效能 7.线性回归的主要用途。

现代语言学 简答整理

3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？) Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication 3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society 9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？) Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not. 5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why? (The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什 么呢？ Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons: First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form. Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？ (The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？ (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？ Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages. The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific. 11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？ 1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con?struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before. 3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

语言学纲要名词解释.

语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。