lexicology词汇学名词解释
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
1．The definition of a word：
A word is a minimal free form of language which has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
2．Sound and Meaning
There is no logical or intrinsic connection between a sound and what it refers to. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The same language can use the same sound to mean different things and the different languages use different sounds to refer to the same thing.
3．Sound and Form
The written form of English is not an accurate representation of the spoken form. There are different causes of the differences between sounds and forms in the English language.
1) The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not employ the system of one single letter to stand for one sound.
2) The early scribes deliberately changed spelling of words to make a line even or for easier recognition.
3) Dictionaries help to fix the spelling of words
4) English has borrowed many words from other languages, which may not have been assimilated .
4．Vocabulary
All the words in a language are termed as vocabulary. However, vocabulary can also be used to refer to all the words in a book, or in a particular historical period of time, or in a dialect, or in a particular discipline, or even to all the words that a person possesses.
5．Classification of Words
Words can be classified into the basic word stock and non-basic word stock by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
1) The Characteristics of the Basic Word Stock
(1) All national character
(2)stability
(3)productivity
(4)polysemy
(5)collocability
2) The Characteristics of borrowed words
(1)Denizens: the early borrowed words which have been assimilated and conformed to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.
(2)Aliens: the borrowed words which have retained the foreign way of pronunciation or spelling and have not been assimilated into the English language.
(3)Translation-loans: the words and expressions which are formed from the existing English materials, but modeled on the patterns of another language.
(4)Semantic loans: words which have not been borrowed with reference to the form, but to the meanings.
3) Roles Played by the native words.
Native words are limited in number, but form the core of the English language. Native words are often neutral in style and frequent in use
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
1．Morphemes
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of a language.
2．Allomorphs
Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. Such alternative morphs of a morpheme are called allomorphs.
3．Types of Morphemes
1) Free Morphemes
Free morphemes are those which usually have complete meanings in themselves and can be used freely or independently as words.
2) Bound Morphemes
Bound morphemes have to be bound with other morphemes to form words and can not be used independently as words.
3) Free Roots
Free roots are free morphemes. They are identical with root words.
4) Bound Roots
A bound root, like a free root, is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning of a word, but unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to be bound with other morphemes to form words.
5)Affixes
Affixes are forms that are attached to stems to modify meaning or function. Almost all the affixes are bound.
6)Inflectional Affixes
An inflectional affix is one attached to the end of a word to convey grammatical meaning or grammatical relation, such as tense, case, number, comparative or superlative degree, etc.
7) Derivational Affixes
A derivational affix is one that is added to the beginning or the end of a word in order to create a new word. Derivational affixes can be divided into prefixes and suffixes.
8)Prefixes
Prefixes are the morphemes that occur at the beginning of a word. They modify the meaning of a stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
9)Suffixes
Suffixes occur at the end of stems. Though they can modify the meanings of the original words, their chief function is to change the parts of speech of words. 4．Root and Stem
1) Root
A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It carries the main component of the meaning of a word. It can also be
defined as that part of a word which remains after all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.
2) Stem
A stem can be defined as any form to which an affix can be added.
Chapter 4 Word Formation II
1．Affixation
Affixation is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems. It is also called derivation. Words formed in this way are derivatives.
1) Prefixation
Prefixation is a way of forming new words by adding prefixes to stems. Usually, prefixes do not change the part of speech of a word. Their chief function is to modify its meaning, although there are exceptions. Prefixes can be divided, based on their meanings, into: negative prefixes, reversative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree or size, locative prefixes, prefixes of time and order, number prefixes and miscelaneous prefixes.
2) Suffixation
Suffixation is the process of forming new words by adding suffixes to the end of stems. The chief role of a suffix is not to modify the meaning of a stem, rather to change the grammatical function of a stem, though there are a few exceptions. Suffixes can be divided into noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes.
2．Compounding
1) Definition
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two or more stems are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called a compound
2) Characteristics of compounds
(1)Phonetic feature
The word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element, while in a free phrase, the second element is usually stressed. If a compound has two stresses, it is the first element that receives the primary stress.
(2)Semantic feature
The meaning of a compound is a semantic unity, which,usually, is not the total sum of all the meanings of the constituent words in a compound.
(3) Grammatical feature
A compound usually plays a single grammatical role in a sentence. 3．Conversion
1) Definition
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one part of speech to the words of another part of speech, without changes in morphological structures. Words created are new only in a grammatical sense.
2)Types of conversion
(1)Conversion to Nouns
a.verb to noun
b.adjective to noun
c. miscellaneous conversion
(2)Conversion to Verbs
a. noun to verb
b. adjective to verb
c. miscellaneous conversion
3)Semantic features of conversion
1)Verb to noun
The new words obtained through conversion are usually related to the original words in the following ways:
(1)state of mind or sensation
(2)event or activity
(3)result of the action
(4)doer of the action
(5)tool or instrument to do the action with
(6)place of the action
2)Noun to verb
(1)to put in or on N
(2)to give N or to provide with N
(3)to remove N from
(4)to do with N
(5)to be or act as n
(6)to make or change into N
(7)to send or go by N
4．Blending
1) Definition
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word
2)Categories of Blending
(1)the first part of the first word + the last part of the second word: botel: boat + hotel 汽艇游客旅馆
(2) the whole part of the first word + last part of the second word: lunarnaut: lunar + astronaut 登月宇航员
(3)the whole form of the second word + the first part of the first word: Eurasian: Europe + Asian 欧亚混血儿
(4)the first part of the first word + the first part of the second word: sitcom: situation + comedy 情景喜剧
5．Clipping
1) Definition
Clipping is to shorten a long word by cutting a part off the original and use what has remained as a word.
2) Types of Clipping
(1)Front clipping: "phone" from telephone
(2)Back clipping: "ad" from advertisement
(3)Front and back clipping: "flu" from influenza
(4)Phrase clipping: "pub" from public house
6．Acronymy
1) Definition
Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of phrases.
2)Types of Acronymy
(1)Initialisms
Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter: VOA from Voice of America (2)Acronyms
Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. 7．Backformation
Back-formation is the opposite process of suffixation. It is the process of making a new word by dropping the supposed suffix: e.g. "burgle" from burglar.
8．New Words from Proper Names
1) Names of people
2)Names of places
3)Names of books
4)Tradenames
When proper nouns are commonized, many of them have lost their original identity;the initial letter many not be capitalized. They can be combined with other morphemes to form words of other word classes. The commonized proper nouns are rich in cultural associations. They are stylistically vivid, expressive and
thought-provoking.
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
1．The meaning of "meaning"
1.1 Reference
Reference is the conventional or arbitrary relationship between language and the world. Part of the word meaning is the reference.
1.2 Concept
Though meaning and concept are closely related, they belong to different categories: Concept is the result of human cognition while meaning is the result of language use.
1.3 Sense
Sense denotes the intrinsic semantic relationship inside the language. it is not concerned with the connection between words and what these words indicate in the word. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
2．Motivation
Motivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. Most words are non-motivated.
2.1．Onomatopoeic motivation
The sounds of some words suggest their meanings, because they are created by imitating the natural sounds. But these onomatopoeic words are also largely conventional, because different languages may use different forms to indicate these sounds.
2.2 Semantic motivation
Semantic motivation explains the relationships between the literal sense and the figurative sense through associations.
2.3 Etymological motivation
Etymological motivation means that the meanings of words can be explained with reference to etymological information. Very often, the history of the word can explain why a form has acquired a particular meaning.
2.4 Morphological motivation
Morphological motivation tries to establish the connection of meaning of the word to its form from morphological point of view. Sometimes, we can work out the meaning of a word if we know the meaning of the morphemes that constitute that word.
3．Types of meaning
Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field
1．Polysemy
Polysemy refers to the phenomenon in which one and the same word has more than one meaning.
1.1 Two approaches to polysemy
1) Diachronic approach: Polysemy is described as the result of the historical development of the semantic features of one and the same word.
2) Synchronic approach: Polysemy is viewed as the co-existence of various meanings of the same word at a particular point in time.
1.2 Two processes of development
1) Radiation：It is the semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meaning radiates out of it. Though the secondary meanings are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.
2) Concatenation: It is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its primary meaning in succession so that the present meaning seems to have no connection to the primary meaning.
2. Homonymy
There are many pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike or spelled alike, or both. Such words are called homonyms.
2.1 Types of homonyms
1)Perfect homonyms: They are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning.
2)Homographs: Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.
3 )Homophones: They are different words identical in sound but different?in?spelling and meaning
2.2 origins of homonyms
Origins of homonyms are change in sound and spelling, borrowing and shortening. 3．Synonymy
Synonymy refers to the relationship of similarity or identity in meaning. Synonyms are the words which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.
3.1 Sources of synonyms
1) borrowing
2)dialects and regional English
3) figurative and euphemistic use of words
3.2 Discrimination of synonyms
1) Difference in denotation
2) Difference in the degree of a given quality
3) Differences in associative meanings
4) Differences in use
4．Antonymy
Antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite are antonyms.
4.1 Types of antonyms
1) Contraries:
Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor. Contraries are gradable, and the semantic contrast in a contrary pair is relative;
i.e. there are often intermediate terms between the two opposites. So the negation of one does not necessarily mean the assertion of the other.
2) Contradictory terms
Contradictory terms are also called complementarities. The meanings of these terms are mutually exclusive and no possibilities are allowed between them. The assertion of one is the negation of the other.
3) Relative terms
They show a reciprocal social relationship and a contrast of direction. One of the two presupposes the other of the two.
4.2 Some characteristics of antonyms
1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of meaning
2) A polysemic word may have more than one antonym.
3) Antonyms can be analysed in terms of markedness. The meaning of one of the pair may be more general and more semantically inclusive than the meaning of the other of the two.
4.3 The use of antonyms
1) Antonyms can be used to define meanings of words.
2) Antonyms can be used for efficient expression of an opposite idea, etc.
3) Antonyms can be used for emphatic effect.
5．Hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to the relationship of semantic inclusion. Words with more specific meaning or narrower meaning are hyponyms, while words with more inclusive or general meanings are superordinate terms. The status either as superordinate or subordinate is only relative.
6．Semantic field
Semantic field is a term to refer to the phenomenon that vocabulary is an integrated system interrelated in sense and can be divided into semantically related sets or fields. Words in each semantic field defines one another.
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning
1．Types of changes
1)Extension
The extension of meaning, the opposite of ?restriction,? means the widening of a word's sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.
2)Narrowing
Narrowing of meaning, also called restriction of meaning, means that a word of wide meaning acquires ?a narrower, specialised sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it previously denoted.
3)Elevation
When the meaning of a word narrows toward a more favourable meaning it is called elevation
4)Degradation
Degradation means the falling of word meaning into ?disrepute,? for one reason or another. Words once respectable or neutral may shift to ?a less respectable, or even derogatory meaning.
2. Causes of changes
1)Extra-linguistic factors
(1)historical reason
(2)class reason
(3)psychological reason
2)Linguistic factors
(1)shortening
(2)borrowing
(3)analogy
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context
1．Types of context
1) Extra-linguistic context
It is also called non-linguistic context, which includes people, place, time, relevant objects, background knowledge etc..
2)Linguistic context
It refers to all the words that go before or come after the word in question. 2．Roles of context
1)Elimination of ambiguity
2)Indication of referents
3)Providing clues for inferring meanings such as:
(1)Definition (2)Explanation
(3)Examples (4)Synonymy
(5)Antonymy (6)Hyponymy
(7)Relevant details (8)Word structure
1. Characteristics of idioms
1) Semantic unity
Each idiom is a semantic unity. The semantic unity can be reflected by the fact that the meaning of an idiom is very often not the total sum of the meanings of the constituent words. The semantic unity can also be shown in the illogical relations between the literal meanings of the constituent words and the meaning of the idiom.
2) Structural stability
Structural stability means that the structure of an idiom usually remains unchangeable. In other words, the constituent components of an idiom can not, generally speaking, be replaced.
2. Classification of idioms
1) Idioms nominal in nature:
They function as nouns in a sentence.
2) Idioms adjectival in nature
They function as adjectives in a sentence.
3)Idioms verbal in nature
They function as verbs in a sentence.
4)Idioms adverbial in nature
They function as adverbials in a sentence.
5)Sentence idioms
Such idioms are usually in complete sentential form. They are usually proverbs or sayings.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/e017506097.html,e of idioms
1) Stylistic features
Different idioms show different stylistic meanings. Some are casual, others formal, still others neural in style. The same idiom may show stylistic differences when denoting different meanings.
2)Rhetorical features
(1)Phonetic manipulation
a. alliteration such as "chop and change"
b. rhyme such as "toil and moil"
(2)Lexical manipulation
a. reiteration, which means the duplication of synonyms such as "chop and change"
b. repetition, which means the repetition of the same word, such as "by and by"
c. juxtaposition, which means the combination of two antonyms such as "day and night"
(3) Figures of speech
a. simile: as proud as a peacock
b. metaphor: white elephant
c. metonymy: velvet glove
d. synecdoche: earn one's bread
e. personification: Failure is the mother of success
4. Variations of idioms
1)addition: "in good condition" from "in condition"
2) deletion: "the last straw" from "It is the last straw that breaks the camel's back."
3) position-shifting: "The Johnsons keep up with sb" from "keep up with the Johnsons"
4) replacement: "wash one's clean linen in public" from "wash one's dirty linen in public"
Idioms are terse, vivid and expressive.
Chapter 10 English dictionaries
1.Types of dictionaries
1) Monolingual dictionaries vs. bilingual dictionaries
Monolingual dictionaries are written in one language, while bilingual dictionaries are written in two languages. Bilingual dictionaries are of the two types". One is that the entries are defined and explained in the same language with translations. The other is that the entries are defined in one language and given their foreign equivalents.
2)Linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries
Linguistic dictionaries aim at providing linguistic information about the head words, such as pronunciation, spelling, meaning, part of speech, etc..
Encyclopedic dictionaries are of the two kinds: one is encyclopedia, which aims at providing encyclopedic information about the headwords. The other is encyclopedic dictionary, which shares the characteristics of both a linguistic dictionary and an encyclopedia.
3)Unabridged, Desk and Pocket Dictionaries
An unabridged dictionary is, theoretically, a complete record of all the words in use, though in fact, it is not.
A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary which usually has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 150,000.
A pocket dictionary usually contains a vocabulary of less than 50,000 words. A pocket dictionary usually provides only the information related to pronounciation and spelling.
4)Specialized dictionaries
Specialized dictionaries usually focus on one area of knowledge. They provide detailed information in a particular subject.
2. Use of dictionaries
1) Choice of dictionaries
The following factors should be considered:
(1) the dictionary users' level of English
(2) the kind of information that dictionary users want to consult a dictionary for
(3) the varieties of English
(4) the purpose of consulting a dictionary
(5) the date of publication
3.Three good general dictionaries
1)Longman dictionary of contemorary English ( new edition)
2) Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary
3)A Chinese-English Dictionary
English Lexicology (terms)
1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.
3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : cats, walking.
5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a
word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.
8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.
11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.
16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.
17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.
19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.
20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.
21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the
syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization. IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.
25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. E.g.
sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. E.g.
dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near, partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an
infant learning to walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use of words: occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33. Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义，含蓄』: differ in the stylistic and emotive coloring. E.g.
ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)
III. Difference in application: in usage. E.g.
empty box ; vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm, cool)--cold
III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,autumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms.
38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere "painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".
39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower
or specialized sense.
E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place" but now "a place for storing cars".
40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善，改良』--refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has fallen.
43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for
a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man.
45. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created in imitation of other words.
For example, telethon and talkathon are created on the model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions , proverbs, etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)