中英法律下海上保险人共同海损赔偿责任辨析_曾立新
中国保险报/2008年/12月/29日/第006版
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中英法律下海上保险人共同海损赔偿责任辨析
曾立新
作为海商法制度中的共同海损和海上保险，近年来出现了对被保险人极为有利的新变化:对共同海损、救助及特别费用不再适用任何不足额保险扣除。对于这一海上保险的共同海损赔偿制度上革命性的变革，我国应密切注意该变化所带来的市场反应，在适当的时机对相关立法作出必要的调整。
多年来，共同海损和海上保险作为海商法律中独立的制度都得到了健全的发展，并且共同海损及分摊责任已经成为现代海上保险合同不可缺少的一个重要组成部分。据统计，大约90%的共同海损分摊都通过保险得到了补偿，但是这并不意味着凡是按照共同海损理算规则应该分摊和补偿的金额，都可以不折不扣地从保险公司取得赔偿。
关于共同海损理算规则与海上保险人的责任
在海上保险条款中，一般均对保险人所承认的共同海损理算规则作出规定。目前，国际上最广泛适用的是《约克——安特卫普规则》，另外很多国家也分别制定了自己的理算规则。不同理算规则对于共同海损所下定义不同，因而共同海损分摊结果就不同，保险人所承担的共同海损责任就有轻重之分。中国现行的(远洋)船舶保险条款明确规定，共同海损的理算应按照运输合同规定的或适用的法律或惯例理算，如果运输合同无此规定，应按《北京理算规则》或其他类似规则规定办理。而伦敦保险人协会船舶保险条款只承认《约克——安特卫普规则》和航程终止地的法律和惯例。在海运货物保险方面，中国现行的海洋运输货物保险条款对共同海损理算没有规定，这在实务中容易引起争议。
关于海上保险人共同海损责任的确认
(一)仅负责承保风险引起的共同海损损失和分摊
根据英国1906年《海上保险法》(以下简称MIAl906)第66条第六款，除非有明文规定，如果共同海损损失和共同海损分摊不是为了避免承保风险、或不是与避免承保风险有关，保险人不负责任。但中国《海商法》对于保险人共同海损责任的界定没有作明确规定，只是在货物或船舶保险条款中将共同海损列为承保责任，也没有严谨地强调须是“由承保风险引起”的共同海损。在实务中，对于非承保风险引起的共同海损和救助，保险人多拒绝赔偿，容易引起纠纷。因此，笔者建议，我国《海商法》应当明确规定保险人对共同海损损失和共同海损分摊责任的承担，是以承保风险的发生为前提条件。
(二)共同海损分摊项目与海上保险人的责任
(1)可以列为共同海损项目进行分摊的损失，根据保险条款的规定却不能赔偿。按照1994/2004年《约克——安特卫普规则》数字规则11第4款的规定，为了防止或减轻环境损害而采取措施的费用在一定条件下是可以列为共同海损的。但是1 995年协会船舶定期保险条款第10条第五款明确将之排除，表明船舶保险人不愿意承担任何以共同海损分摊形式表现出来的环境损害和防污费用的风险。
中国现行船舶、货物保险条款都没有对此做出明确规定，但是都规定赔偿“共同海损、救助、救助费用的分摊部分”。这样，在未明确将上述“防污费用”予以除外的情况下，如果适用1994年或2004年《约克——安特卫普规则》理算，就要对防污费用的分摊予以负责。另外，我国船舶、货物保险条款也没有考虑到因我国《海商法》接受了《1989年国际救助公约》的规定而出现的特别补偿的概念。
(2)有些项目只有被列入共同海损，海上保险人才予以赔偿。例如船员的工资和维持费用作为间接损失在船舶保险条款中一般不予承保。但是这部分费用如果能够按照共同海损理算规则列入共损费用，保险公司就承认并予以赔偿。正是根据这一点，船舶保险条款中有所谓的“空船共同海损”(G.A.i n ballast)的规定。
(3)有些项目根据理算规则不能列为共同海损分摊，却能从保险公司获得赔偿。例如，1994/2004年《约克——安特卫普规则》数字规则13规定，对于船龄超过15年的船舶的共同海损修理费用，要进行1/3的以新换旧的扣减。而船舶保险人对于修理费用的赔偿不作以新换旧的扣减，对不能列入共同海损分摊的1/3修理费用可以承担赔偿责任。关于这一点，中、英现行船舶保险条款的规定相同。
关于保险人共同海损责任数额的确定
被保险人的共同海损分摊金额并不一定是海上保险人的赔偿数额。根据MIAl906第73条，保险人对于共同海损责任的赔偿是以保险价值作为计算基础的，并且对于被保险人的共同海损分摊要按照保险标的的保险价值与其共同海损分摊价值的比例计算赔偿。当保险标的的共同海损分摊价值高于保险价值时，就视同发生了“不足额保险”。另外，根据MIAl906第66条第四款的规定，对于保险标的的共同海损牺牲，被保险人有权取得全部损失赔偿，而对于被保险人支出的共同海损费用，保险人没有义务在共同海损理算结果确定以前先行向被保险人进行赔偿。并且，对于保险标的共同海损牺牲的赔偿，保险人不再按照保险价值与共同海损分摊价值的比例计算赔款。而对于保险标的以外的其他共同海损性质的财产损失和费用支出由被保险人应该分摊的责任，保险人要按照扣除单独海损后的保险价值与共同海损分摊价值的比例计算赔偿。
值得注意的是，中国《海商法》第241条规定“保险金额低于共同海损分摊价值的，保险人按照保险金额同分摊价值的比例赔偿共同海损分摊”。因此有人说，《海商法》对于保险人的共同海损赔偿责任既不考虑保险价值，也不扣除已赔偿的单独海损。其实，这一理解并不完全正确。因为保险金额/共同海损分摊价值这个比例可以等于(保险金额/保险价值)×(保险价值/共同海损分摊价值)。但是，《海商法》的这一规定没有考虑将同一次事故中的单独海损进行扣减，因为并不能等于保险金额/共同海损分摊价值。这一点不同于MIA 1906的相关规定。共同海损的发生一般都伴随着单独海损，《海商法》的这种规定显然对被保险人比较有利，能够获得更多的赔偿。但是从保险赔偿原理考虑，单独海损已经依据海上承保风险另外予以赔偿了，在计算共同海损赔偿额的时候应该将已经获得赔偿的单独海损扣除，否则会出现超额赔偿的问题，不符合保险的赔偿原则。
但是，伦敦保险市场的联合船舶保险委员会(JHC)在2003年修订版的国际船舶保险条款(I HC2003)对共同海损、救助及特别费用不再适用任何不足额保险扣除。这对于海上保险的共同海损赔偿堪称是一次革命，对被保险人极为有利。我国海上保险市场应当密切注意该变化所带来的市场反应，在适当的时机做出相应调整。
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法律渊源source of law 制定法statute 判例法case law; precedent 普通法common law 特别法special law 固有法native law; indigenous law 继受法adopted law 实体法substantial law 程序法procedural law 原则法fundamental law 例外法exception law 司法解释judicial interpretation 习惯法customary law 公序良俗public order and moral 自然法natural law 罗马法Roman Law 私法private law 公法public law 市民法jus civile 万民法jus gentium 民法法系civil law system 英美法系system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系civil law system 普通法common law 大陆法continental law 罗马法系Roman law system 衡平法equity; law of equity 日尔曼法Germantic law 教会法ecclesiastical law 寺院法canon law 伊斯兰法Islamic law 民法法律规范norm of civil law 授权规范authorization norm 禁止规范forbidding norm 义务性规范obligatory norm 命令性规范commanding norm 民法基本原则fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则principle of equality 自愿原则principle of free will 公平原则principle of justice 等价有偿原则principle of equal value exchange 诚实信用原则principle of good faith 行为act 作为ac 不作为omission 合法行为lawful act 违法行为unlawful act 民事权利权利能力civil right 绝对权absolute right 相对权relative right 优先权right of priority 先买权preemption 原权antecedent right 救济权right of relief 支配权right of dominion 请求权right of claim 物上请求权right of claim for real thing 形成权right of formation 撤销权right of claiming cancellation
法律专业词汇中英对照(a,b)
法律专业词汇中英对照(a,b) action of debt 债务诉讼 acquit 无罪 adjourn 暂时停止执行 administrative decision 行政判决结果 ad damnum 主张一定数额的赔偿金 adverse judgement 不利的判决 affidavit 传票送达人所写的切结书 affirm 确定原判决 affirm defence 积极的抗辩 agency stage 行政机关的裁决 agency hearing 听证会 allegation 主张的事实 american law 美国法 an ex parte hearing 一方当事人到庭说明an adversary hearing 双方当事人到庭辩论answer 答辩状 appellate jurisdiction 上诉管辖权appeal 上诉
appellant 上诉人 appellee 被上诉人 appropriate 永久占有 arrest the judgement 暂时终止法院判决结果 arraignment 刑事案件法官与当事人之间安排案件的程序assigned counsel 公设辩护人 assumpsit 承诺履行 bailment 寄托制度 bail 保释 beyond the reasonable doubt 超越合理的怀疑 bill of Middlesex 早期诉讼当事人向国王秘书处申请的令状，同意发给后才能到 国王法院进行诉讼 bailliff 法庭内的法警 bias 偏见 bench of conference 到法官室或法官面前进行会议 bond 提供担保 burden of proof 举证责任 from：http://www./classroom/flyy/
中英文对照合同11
采购合同 (Purchasing Contract) 合同编号(Contract NO.)： 合同签订地点(Signed At)：东营 签订时间(Date)：年月日出卖人(Seller)： 买受人(Buyer)： 鉴于：根据【中华人民共和国合同法】及相关法律法规，本着平等自愿、等价有偿、诚实诚信的原则，经双方协商一致，订立本合同。 According to the Contract law of the People's Republic of China and relevant laws and regulations,we conclude the contract on the basis of equality, voluntariness,compensation of equal value and sincerity. 第一条标的、数量、价款及交（提）货时间 Item 1 (object)Quantity Price and Delivery time 物资编码名称及规格型号Commodity code and type 生产厂家 Manufacture r 计量单位 Unit 数量 Quantity 单价（元） Unit Price 总金额（元） Total Amount 备注 Note 不含税总金额（人民币） Total Amount (V AT excluded) 交提货时间、数量：年月日至年月日全部交货。 Delivery time: From to 第二条质量标准：标准代号、编号和标准名称：GB150-98. Item 2 Quality standard: standard code,serial number and standard name:GB150-98. 第三条出卖人对质量负责的条件及期限 Item 3 Conditions and time limits that Sellers shall be held responsibility for 1. 质量负责条件和期限按正常运行12个月止执行。 1. Quality responsible conditions and time limits shall not be valid until the product has been functioning properly for 12 months 2. 出卖人对标的物的质量负责，产品均附质检报告单，质量保证书。如果出卖人知道或 者应当知道所处卖产品存在质量缺陷，所承担的质量保证期限不受前款质量负责期限的约束，应依法承担相应责任。 2. Sellers shall be responsible for the quality of the marks.The products should include the Quality Inspection Report and Quality Guarantee.If the sellers know or should know the products they sell with defects in quality,the quality assurance time limits should not be subject to the previous quality responsibility deadline and they should be held due responsibility for it. 第四条包装标准：标准包装，产品所需包装由出卖人合理包装，适合水运和长途内陆运输，防潮，防湿，防锈，防震。 Item 4 Packaging standard: Standard packaging, the sellers should package the products properly, it should be suitable for shipment and long distance inland transportation. The packaging of the products should be resistant of dampness, moisture, rust and shock. 第五条随机的必备品、配件、技术资料、工具数量及供应方法：随设备交货一起交齐。 Item 5 The accompanied necessary materia l, accessories, technical information ,quantity of
常见常用专利及申请相关词汇--中英文对照
常见常用专利及申请相关词汇--中英文对照 abandonment of a patent 放弃专利权 abandonment of a patent application 放弃专利申请 abridgment 文摘 abstract 文摘(摘要) abuse of patent 滥用专利权 action for infringement of patent 专利侵权诉讼 action of a patent 专利诉讼 address for service 文件送达地址 affidavit 誓书 allowance 准许 amendment 修改 annual fee 年费 annuity 年费 anticipation 占先 appeal 上诉 appellation of origin 原产地名称 applicant for patent 专利申请人 application date 申请日期 application documents 申请案文件 application fee 申请费 application for patent 专利申请(案) application laying open for public inspection 公开供公众审查的申请 application number 申请号 application papers 申请案文件 arbitration 仲裁 art 技术 article of manufacture 制品 assignee 受让人 assignment 转让 assignor 转让人 author of the invention 发明人 author's certificate 发明人证书 basic patent 基本专利 Berne Convention 伯尔尼公约 Berne Union 伯尔尼联盟 best mode 最佳方式 bibliographic data 著录资料 BIRPI 保护知识产权联合国国际局 board of appeals 申诉委员会 breach of confidence 泄密 Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the
PEVC法律术语英文版
This sample document is the work product of a national coalition of attorneys who specialize in venture capital financings, working under the auspices of the NVCA. This document is intended to serve as a starting point only, and should be tailored to meet your specific requirements. This document should not be construed as legal advice for any particular facts or circumstances. Note that this sample document presents an array of (often mutually exclusive) options with respect to particular deal provisions. TERM SHEET
This term sheet maps to the NVCA Model Documents, and for convenience the provisions are grouped according to the particular Model Document in which they may be found. Although this term sheet is perhaps somewhat longer than a "typical" VC Term Sheet, the aim is to provide a level of detail that makes the term sheet useful as both a road map for the document drafters and as a reference source for the business people to quickly find deal terms without the necessity of having to consult the legal documents (assuming of course there have been no changes to the material deal terms prior to execution of the final documents).
印尼环境法律和法规(英文版)
AMCHAM INDONESIA World Trade Center, 11th Floor Jl. Jendral Sudirman Kav. 29-31, Jakarta 12920, Indonesia Tel: (62-21) 526-2860 Fax: (62-21) 526-2861 Email: info@amcham.or.id Website: www.amcham.or.id Clarification Brief/Working Paper Environmental Laws and Regulations Issue Summary Producing and distributing goods and services in an environmentally responsible manner is the primary objective of U.S. companies operating in Indonesia. American companies have a track record in effectively operating in complex and diverse regulatory environments and take pride in such leadership roles. Over the last 18 months, the Indonesian parliament has enacted several laws that impact how companies’ environmental performance shall be characterized, monitored and managed by regulatory bodies at the national, provincial and municipal levels. These laws, although good in their intent, raise a number of questions regarding their interpretation and implementation. The passing of Law 32/2009 (Environmental Protection and Management) and Law 18/2008 (Municipal Waste Management Act) brings about a number of implementing regulations, which are expected to provide guidance and clarity. This Clarification Brief/Working Paper (CB/WP) seeks clarification on the timing and format of consultation related to implementing regulations for Laws 32/2009 and 18/2008. More importantly, this CB/WP suggests clarification points to be inserted into such consultations, so key stakeholders engage in fruitful discussions that contribute to a greater understanding of and compliance with the law. Since AmCham represents a broad scope of industry sectors, the organization looks forward to the opportunity for engagement to ensure stakeholder concerns are considered. Objective In an effort to find a balance between environmental and social responsibility, economic development and operational efficiency, and under the provisions set forth by Law 32/2009 and Law 18/2008, AmCham seeks to work with the Indonesian government and other key stakeholders to develop a set of implementing regulations that support the intent of these laws within proposed guiding principles and objectives. Ultimately, AmCham seeks to contribute to regulations that promote clarity, transparency, consistency, efficiency and competitiveness. Position AmCham expresses the following concerns and hopes to work closely with relevant government authorities to address these concerns during development of the respective implementing regulations: