国际人力资源管理外文文献

The relationship between employees’perceptions of human resource management and their retention:from the viewpoint of attitudes

toward job-specialties

Hiroshi Yamamoto*

School of Business,Aoyama Gakuin University,Tokyo,Japan

The purpose of this study is threefold.The ?rst one is to investigate the relationship between employees’perceptions of human resource management (HRM)based on the commitment model and their turnover intentions (retention).The second one examines the relationship between employees’attitudes toward job-specialties and retention.The third one analyzes the impact of attitudes toward job-specialties on the relationship between employees’perceptions of HRM and retention.The facts and conclusions presented in this paper were obtained from a study of 400employees.For the ?rst one,the results of a multiple regression analysis showed that perceptions of rewards based on fair appraisal and job security have an effect on retention and moreover,overall perceptions of HRM increased retention.For the second one,results of a multiple regression analysis showed that inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy has a negative effect on retention.On the other hand,no relationship was observed between specialty commitment and retention.For the third one,inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy did not have an effect on the relationship between perceptions of HRM and retention but specialty commitment improved the relationship.As a whole,the importance of employees’attitudes toward job-specialties on the multi-step process model of retention and its diverse impacts and relationships were clari?ed.

Keywords:attitudes toward job-specialties;inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy;perceptions of human resource management;retention;specialty commitment;turnover intention

Introduction

Fierce competition is raging presently to secure competent human resources.Greater employment ?uidity enhanced by increased job changes further intensi?es the competition for securing capable,high-performing individuals as well as those that will become the future core personnel for organizations.This trend is evident even in times of economic recession,especially,in a country such as China where economy develops rapidly.The keyword in terms of human resource management (HRM)is ‘retention’.In addition to the general de?nition of the word,i.e.‘holding,maintaining,continuation and preventing from leaving’,this word takes on a new meaning in business administration.It means securing employees in a company.

On the other hand,in this present age of increased competition among companies,organizations,particularly large organizations,are looking in the direction of putting emphasis on employees’knowledge and job-specialties,in addition to the importance of employees’retention (Drucker 1988).Cappelli (1999)also states that the most important

ISSN 0958-5192print/ISSN 1466-4399online q 2013Taylor &Francis

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/df14301039.html,/10.1080/09585192.2012.697478

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*Email:yamamoto@busi.aoyama.ac.jp

The International Journal of Human Resource Management ,Vol.24,No.4,February 2013,747–767

issues directly faced by companies are the retention of core company staff,maintenance of employees’commitment,employees’skills development and that the enhancement of employees’knowledge and job-specialties is positioned alongside retention.In other words,it is desirable for the enhancement of employees’job-specialties to result in employees’retention or at the least should not contradict employee retention.

In this study,I analyze the relationship between employees’perceptions of HRM and their retention from the viewpoint of attitudes toward job-specialties.HRM and perceptions of HRM that are linked to employees’retention

Over the past few years,based on the theory of strategic HRM,in empirical research of retention,many results have been achieved that have promoted retention according to the premise that a high level of commitment from employees to the organization and the job itself will prompt greater levels of performance.These include a high-involvement model (commitment model)that encourages employee participation in management as well as high-performance work practices (Arthur 1994;Huselid 1995).These practices share a common feature:they are all based on the premise that a greater commitment to one’s job and organization increases performance,which then encourages employees’participation in management.The speci?c practices included in the aforementioned various models are job security,selective staf?ng,self-management teams and empowerment,high merit-based rewards,broad-range employee education,equality in working conditions and sharing of work performance data (Pfeffer 1998).In this study,these practices are collectively called ‘practices based on the commitment model’.

Will we observe a direct effect of retention by implementing HRM based on the commitment model?Even if an organization implements the HRM practice for the purpose of retention,without informing employees of this,it cannot prevent them from resigning.Guzzo and Noonan (1994)de?ned HR practices from the perspective of a psychological contract as ‘communication from the employer to its employees’(p.447),a purposeful signal to transmit accurately employee’s meanings and an aggregation of all planned messages.However there will probably be differences in attitudes that result from perception of the practice,even among the same practice.Therefore attention is paid to the concept of perceptions of HRM,de?ned as ‘perceptions towards the employees’HRM system (practices)’(Yamamoto 2008,p.187).Perceptions of HRM are introduced as factors that affect retention in several prior studies (Batt and Valcour 2003,etc.).However,with the exception of Yamamoto (2009)and SamGnanakkan (2010),there were hardly any studies on the impact of perceptions of HRM of the commitment model on retention.Accordingly,the following hypothesis was established:Hypothesis 1:

Employees’perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model increase retention.

Employees’attitudes toward job-specialties in the multi-step process model of retention

Does HRM based on the commitment model have a direct impact on the retention of employees?In recent studies on retention,strong validity results were found in a multi-step process model that established the intervening factors or moderating factors on job satisfaction,promotion opportunities and organizational commitment,rather than a model where HRM has a direct impact on retention (Lee and Bruvold 2003,etc.).

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The International Journal of Human Resource Management749 Job-specialties generally indicate a high level of knowledge and experience on speci?c ?elds and are de?ned as‘trend of researching/managing only a speci?c?eld in an occupation’(Morita2006,p.252)and‘competency based on a high level of knowledge and experience in speci?c?elds that is evaluated cross-sectionally by the(labor)market’(Yamamoto2009, p.118).From this,job-specialties by occupation and occupational category,or organization and occupational category combined such as‘job-specialties of nursing’and‘job-specialties demanded in accounting department of company A’were discussed.In other words,when considering job-specialties in speci?c?eld,unlimited subdivision will occur and it will be extremely dif?cult to understand them in a study with set targets.

Therefore,what should be done so that job-specialties are not perceived mainly through detailed individual knowledge and experience related to speci?c?elds?One way is to perceive job-specialties from the perspective of attitudes toward job-specialties. This is because aside from contents of job-specialties,all workers possess attitudes toward job-specialties regardless of their extent,and attitude itself can be compared with others. Through this,it is possible to avoid mentioning the differences in content for each individual?eld of job-specialties,which is troublesome as mentioned earlier.At the same time,the concept of job-specialties will be set free from the conventional discussion that limits it only to professionals.

In prior studies,attitudes toward job-specialties were discussed through two aspects–competency and intention aspects.As a competency aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties,the self-ef?cacy is paid attention to.

Self-ef?cacy theory is distinct from expectations of results where certain results lead to certain behavior;the self-ef?cacy expectations,or in other words,the feeling of self-ef?cacy which shows the con?dence in being able to execute the necessary actions to achieve the results is suggested to have a crucial impact on the various selection behavior of human beings(Bandura1977).Thereafter from Betz and Hackett(1981)onwards,studies on career self-ef?cacy that applied this concept to career development theory,took off.Concretely, many empirical analyses were conducted as the factors related to personality that affect career development and the subjective factors related to alternative employment(job) opportunities in the job-change prediction model.In other words,when an individual selects behaviors related to speci?c career development,he must be con?dent that he has the required ability.Therefore in this study,career self-ef?cacy is regarded as a competency aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties.However the use of the concept of career self-ef?cacy that includes all behaviors related to the development of an individual’s career is slightly broad for this study that focuses speci?cally on attitudes toward job-specialties. In this study,therefore,career self-ef?cacy is regarded as a factor that affects the inter-organizational career development achieved by changing organizations,and established the concept of inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy(Yamamoto2008).

This is de?ned as‘belief in one’s ability to continuously acquire the experience and skills through change of organization’(Yamamoto2008,p.25).In other words,inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy is attitudes toward job-specialties with a high level of applicability(in the labor market)based on a high level of knowledge/experiences in speci?c?elds,a characteristic of job-specialties.Inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy is similar to concepts such as alternative job opportunities(Steers and Mowday1981)in preceding job-change prediction models,and is also strongly related to employability.

In the intention aspects of attitudes toward job-specialties,several concepts were cited and discussed from the perspective of commitment.A key concept is professional commitment.This directly focuses on the professional and is de?ned as‘the relative strength of identi?cation with and involvement in one’s profession’,and presents the

desire to stay as a part of professionals who voluntarily commit considerable amount of work for the bene?ts of the professional,and the target and belief in values of the professional (Morrow and Wirth 1989).In addition,the concepts that do not focus on professionals are career commitment and occupational commitment de?ned as ‘one’s attitude towards one’s profession or vocation’(Blau 1985,p.278).However,except for social professionals such as lawyers,doctors and public certi?ed accountants,commitment to occupation in Japan is vague for those with occupations other than professionals,since the positioning of occupation of workers is not clearly de?ned.

Therefore in this study,‘specialty commitment’that is operatively de?ned as the ‘commitment towards one’s job-specialties’is analyzed as attitudes toward job-specialties that represents the intention aspect.In prior studies,‘specialized ?eld commitment’that presents commitment toward specialized ?elds in work is considered to be close to this concept (Ishiyama 2011).According to Ishiyama (2011),specialized ?eld commitment has the highest professional,and increases as an occupational type increases in discretion of duties.

Impact of attitudes toward job-specialties on retention

How will the competency aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties affect retention?It is believed that if one’s job-specialties can be applied to other organizations and career development is considered possible,turnover intention will be encouraged considerably.In preceding empirical studies,the results of meta-analysis showed a positive correlation between alternative job opportunities,turnover intention and actual resignation (Hom,Walker,Prussia and Griffeth 1992).In addition,the level of marketability,a similar concept,also contributed positively to turnover intention (Veiga 1983).Inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy itself also increased turnover intention signi?cantly (Yamamoto 2008).From these results,in this study I established the following hypothesis based on the self-ef?cacy theory.Hypothesis 2:

A high level of inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy affects retention negatively.

What kind of relationship is observed between intention aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties and retention?Gouldner (1957)divides workers into those who emphasized on specialized skills as cosmopolitans and those who emphasized af?liated organization as locals.This is a con?icting idea where cosmopolitans are considered as professional and locals as non-professional.However,later empirical studies veri?ed models with concepts that cosmopolitans and locals do not con?ict with each other and that both are independent;these studies then became dominant (Glaser 1963;Frango and Brumbaugh 1974).In other words,cosmopolitans and locals are independent and there are people among the professionals who excel in both,and that they are compatible (Glaser 1963).This result is believed to re?ect a situation where the percentage of professionals belonging to an organization is becoming overwhelmingly high.This means a convergence of organization and job-specialties in employees’awareness.The same can be said of the organization employees of non-professional core of this study.For example,the correlation between professional commitment (career commitment)that represents an emphasis on specialized skills and organizational commitment that represents a loyalty toward the organization is becoming signi?cant in many studies (Carson and Bedeian 1994,etc.).Results of a meta-analysis also show moderate positive correlation between the two (Wallace 1993).

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The International Journal of Human Resource Management751 In prior studies that analyzed the relationship between intention aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties and retention,career commitment was found to have a negative effect on intention of organizational change behavior(Yamamoto1995),and also contributed negatively toward actual resignation(Blau1989).In addition,a high level of commitment in a specialized?eld also showed a weakening effect on turnover intention (Ishiyama2011).In this way,in prior studies as well,the intention aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties showed a tendency to increase retention.From the above discussion,I established the following hypothesis in this study:

Hypothesis3:A high level of specialty commitment increases retention.

Impact of attitudes toward job-specialties in the relationship between perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model and retention

What kind of effect does the competency aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties have on the retention effect of perceptions of HRM?Through an analysis on the impact model of retention,Yamamoto(2008)found a situation of‘paradox between career development and con?dence’,so to speak.There was a downward trend in turnover intention due to career development imposed by perceptions of HRM(emphasis on career self-reliance of employees).At the same time,career development increased inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy.In other words,turnover intention decreased due to career development but at the same time increased the con?dence that one was able to change jobs or could manage even after a job change,conversely producing a paradox that increased turnover intention.It suggests that an aggregation of positive indirect effects through increased con?dence from career development and negative direct effects from career development determines turnover intention.As a result,it was veri?ed that negative direct effect due to career development was larger.In other words,during the process when workers decide whether to change jobs voluntarily,con?ict due to the above paradox is closely involved. For example,while it is believed that comprehensive training and development,a key dimension of the commitment model,causes the retention effect by enhancing employees’skills and improves career development,improvement in inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy which is also the result of career development decreases that effect.However, perceptions of HRM cited by Yamamoto(2008)are of only one dimension and dif?cult to generalize.Therefore in this study,I established and veri?ed the following hypothesis based on a theoretical framework of the commitment model,which expands the range of HRM:

Hypothesis4:Retention effect of perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model will decrease as inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy becomes

higher.

What kind of effect does intention aspect of attitudes toward job-specialties have on the retention effect of perceptions of HRM?In modern society,it is common that the individual enters multiple organizations and groups at the same time and as a result, commitment is made on one level or another to multiple organizations and targets.In the ?eld of organizational behavior,there were many prior studies based on multiple commitments where workers commit themselves to multiple targets.According to Morrow(1983),work commitment related to the broad sense of work is divided into value focus,career focus,job focus,organization focus and union focus,depending on the target of commitment.Specialty commitment of this study is included in career focus.In prior

studies,differences in impact on attitude of worker due to differences in commitment to multiple targets has been discussed.For example,in the event of dual commitment where organizational commitment and professional commitment are both high,motivation level becomes highest (Glaser 1963).In studies that focused on retention,dual commitment with higher organizational commitment and professional commitment was found to have a negative effect on turnover intention than on organizational commitment alone (Shin 2001).In other words,the multiplier effects of both organizational and professional commitment were observed toward retention.This could be due to commitment to both the organization one belongs to in which con?icts occur easily and specialized skills.Originally,the HRM practices of the commitment model were aimed at improvement of employees’commitment toward organization and jobs,and many prior studies found that improvement in organization commitment increased retention (Adams and Beehr 1998).Therefore,we established the following hypothesis:Hypothesis 5:

Retention effect of perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model increases as specialty commitment becomes higher.

The relationship between the above variables is represented graphically in Figure 1.Method

This study was conducted using a questionnaire research conducted through Internet on monitors possessed by research specialist company M from 23October 2007to 26October 2007.The survey eliminated very small companies by limiting subject eligibility to 400full-time employees of private-sector companies with a full-time staff of 30or more.Their mean organizational tenure was 15.47years (SD ?9.794).Men accounted for 79.0%and women,21.0%.Their breakdown in terms of their academic background was:high schools,19.3%;junior college/vocational schools,13.3%;universities,55.8%and graduate schools,11.8%.There was a high rate of those with a higher education.Their job-type breakdown was:sales,13.5%;research and development,12.5%;information processing,11.8%;marketing,10.5%and general/clerical,8.5%.The breakdown of their positions was:salaried employee,39.5%;supervisors/managers,23.0%;assistant (deputy)managers,5.5%;section managers,18.0%;department managers and deputy managers,3.8%;above department manager levels,6.3%and professionals,4.0%.

Attitudes toward job-specialties Figure 1.Relationship between variables of this study.

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Measurement instruments

Retention

Prior studies classi?ed retention indices by two criteria:organization versus individuals and subjective versus objective.As individual-based objective indices,resignation and organizational tenure were adopted,while turnover intention was adopted as a subjective index.As this study is based on the surveys of individuals,we limited ourselves to the use of individual-based indices in our attempt to examine their relationship with HRM.If one wants to examine a model that tries to prevent future resignations,one needs to select indices that encompass psychological aspects.This is why this study uses turnover intention as a retention index.

The turnover intention shows an individual’s intention immediately before resignation and was used in many prior studies(Boselie and Wiele2002,etc.).Meta-analyses have shown some correlation between turnover intention and resignation(Tett and Meyer1993, etc.).Also,it is quite possible to limit the analysis to spontaneous resignations.This study used Van Yperen,Hagedoorn and Geurts(1996)for reference and measured turnover intention using two items,i.e.‘I would like to take up different employment’and‘I would like to resign from the company to which I now belong’.The average value of5-point Likert scale to(5)which is agreed from(1)which is not agreed was used. Perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model

Referencing prior studies(Ivancevich2003,etc.)in Europe and the United States,this study considered three domains of HRM,i.e.recruitment,education and appraisal/com-pensation.I then explored the dimensions discussed in high-involvement work practices and high-performance work practices studies reported by Arthur(1994),Huselid(1995), Pfeffer(1998)and others.I then adopted the following dimensions and items that?t the structure of many Japanese organizations:Rewards based on fair appraisal(eight items), comprehensive training and development(six items),job security(four items),enrichment of the employee bene?ts(three items)and careful recruiting(two items;cf.Table1). Inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy

Self-ef?cacy,as reported in its earlier de?nition,originally refers to a sense of ef?cacy in the execution of a speci?c task or job.However,the focus of this study is not on speci?c tasks but on the high level of application(in the labor market)based on advanced knowledge/experience in speci?c?elds.Unlike speci?c self-ef?cacy based on expectations(situational expectations)speci?ed by the situation(speci?c tasks,etc.) (Bandura1977),Eden(1988)de?nes a general sense of self-ef?cacy as a concept based on expectations toward one’s competence that is generally applied regardless of speci?c situations.This is because the level of application investigated in this study is a relatively stabilized self-ef?cacy of one’s own competency.In addition,it is different from perceptions of alternative employment(job)opportunities in prior studies,in that it not only includes job change but also the display of competency after a job change.Therefore in this study,I created a six-items scale using Adams and Beehr(1998)as reference (Table2).

Specialty commitment

In this study,specialty commitment is considered to be a part of career attitudes that demonstrates an awareness of one’s career.Based on the scale of Noe,Noe and Bachhuber

T a b l e 1.

R e s u l t s o f a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o n p e r c e p t i o n s o f H R M i t e m s .

F a c t o r s

I t e m s

1

2345h 2

I n d i v i d u a l j o b p e r f o r m a n c e i s t h o u g h t v e r y m u c h a s i m p o r t a n t i n p e r s o n n e l a p p r a i s a l .0.845

20.0100.0250.03620.1360.611

I n d i v i d u a l j o b p e r f o r m a n c e i s g r e a t l y r e ?e c t e d o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a s a l a r y .0.845

20.05420.02220.12720.089

0.507

A c c o r d i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l j o b p e r f o r m a n c e ,f a s t p r o m o t i o n i s e x p e c t e d .0.79520.1230.11120.03320.0120.545E m p l o y e e s g e t s a t i s f a c t o r y f e e d b a c k a b o u t t h e r e s u l t o f p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n .0.654

20.02020.0740.0710.144

0.549

P e r s o n n e l a p p r a i s a l i s d e s i g n e d s o t h a t f a i r n e s s m a y b e m a i n t a i n e d .0.6030.1210.05420.0130.1390.662T h e p o i n t o f p e r s o n n e l a p p r a i s a l i s c l a r i ?e d i n a d v a n c e .0.5970.22520.0840.11620.1140.530I t h i n k t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n m e t h o d o f p r o m o t i o n i s s u c c e s s f u l .0.5650.08320.09720.0020.2180.564T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n m e t h o d o f a s a l a r y a n d a b o n u s i s v e r y f a i r .0.49020.0750.0580.0710.2220.434A l o t o f t i m e i s a s s i g n e d t o e m p l o y e e e d u c a t i o n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s .20.065

0.8500.0160.049

20.021

0.686

S t r u c t u r e /p r o g r a m f o r t a l e n t c u l t i v a t i o n i s e n h a n c e d .0.0590.8120.0410.02620.0790.714I h a v e b e e n w e l l -t r a i n e d b y t h i s c o m p a n y f o r m y c u r r e n t j o b .20.0920.74520.07320.0080.2230.627P o l i c y /p r i n c i p l e o f t a l e n t c u l t i v a t i o n i s c l e a r .0.3080.55020.02520.0110.0090.625I n c u r r e n t c o m p a n y /p l a c e o f w o r k ,O J T i s e m p h a s i z e d .0.1590.5140.18020.04020.0240.497O J T b y b o s s a n d s e n i o r s i s c o n d u c t e d w e l l .0.2430.4360.01920.0200.1740.579I t i s p r e m i s e d o n e m p l o y e e s s e r v i n g i n a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e c o n t i n u o u s l y .20.1080.1310.8240.00320.0610.690L o n g -t e r m e m p l o y m e n t i s s e c u r e d .0.07520.0860.7130.05420.0250.525T h i s c o m p a n y h a s d o n e a l l i t c a n t o a v o i d l a y o f f s .20.05020.1220.5950.0560.2910.472T h i s c o m p a n y d o e s a g o o d j o b o f p l a c i n g c o m p e t e n t p e o p l e i n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n .0.126

0.1630.474

20.081

20.087

0.314

T h i s c o m p a n y a c c e p t s c h a n g e o f a t e m p o r a r y s e r v i c e f o r m b y c h i l d -r e a r i n g o r c a r e (s h o r t -t i m e s e r v i c e ,e t c .).0.026

20.026

0.045

0.837

20.155

0.661

S u p p o r t f o r m a k i n g a r e t u r n s m o o t h i s o f f e r e d a s o p p o s e d t o t h e e m p l o y e e w h o i s t e m p o r a r i l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m w o r k w i t h c h i l d -r e a r i n g ,c a r e ,e t c .20.006

20.082

0.030

0.798

0.140

0.678

M y c o m p a n y p r o m o t e s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a c h i l d -c a r e l e a v e o r n u r s i n g -c a r e l e a v e .

20.044

0.192

20.038

0.733

20.020

0.651

(C o n t i n u e d )

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T h i s c o m p a n y s p e c i ?e s w h a t k i n d o f c a p a b i l i t y i s r e q u i r e d o f a r e c r u i t m e n t s t a g e .0.029

0.0150.04120.0580.7960.671

A p t i t u d e r e q u i r e d t o w o r k i n a r e c r u i t m e n t s t a g e i s s p e c i ?c .0.0510.10620.0290.0000.7120.649C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n f a c t o r s —F a c t o r 20.731—F a c t o r 30.3980.479—F a c t o r 40.3870.5680.537—F a c t o r 5

0.641

0.6050.3510.360—

N o t e :n ?400.T h e f a c t o r l o a d i n g i s o b t a i n e d a f t e r t h e o b l i q u e p r o m a x r o t a t i o n .I t a l i c i z e d v a l u e s s h o w f a c t o r l o a d i n g o f m o r e t h a n 0.4.

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Table 2.Results of a factor analysis on attitudes toward job-specialties and career attitudes items.

Items

Factors

h 2

1

234My knowledge and skills about work are useful immediately even after job change.

0.8870.0240.00220.0630.739My current capability and skill can be used in the other company.0.83320.0530.04020.0400.638The level of my job-specialties is accepted generally.

0.80720.01320.0300.0640.701I have specialized knowledge and skills which I can teach to people who aren’t colleagues.

0.6770.12220.07020.0030.510I have enough knowledge and skills so that I can obtain a

certain income outside my company.0.5560.1810.05420.1000.366Even if I take up different

employment,I have con?dence adopted by labor conditions equivalent to now.0.53120.2120.2190.0910.350I am satis?ed with the success I have achieved in my career.0.0560.70720.0310.0900.578I am satis?ed with the progress I have made for income.

20.1810.6640.19620.1610.491I am satis?ed with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goal.

0.2370.6160.01820.0500.522I am satis?ed with the progress I have made for promotion.20.1630.5170.40020.0390.554I am satis?ed with the progress I have made for the development of skills or knowledge.

0.1980.51420.0740.1330.445I anticipate many opportunities for me to be promoted in this company.

0.1060.0770.75720.0370.664Being promoted frequently in the future is expected.

0.15820.0570.73320.0270.548I have an opportunity to promote in this company more than the present position and rank.

20.1270.2170.5530.1740.529The utmost efforts are not regretted,either,if it is for raising

the level of my job-specialties.

20.09620.1750.0660.9070.659Applying my specialized capability leads to the rise of work motivation.

0.1320.19920.2460.5290.457The ?eld of my job-specialties to want to raise the level was decided clearly.

0.0010.2230.0540.5240.454I have a clear plan for

raising the level of my job-specialties.0.23120.0550.220

0.398

0.404Correlations between factors —Factor 20.379—Factor 30.1940.497—Factor 4

0.608

0.421

0.280

—

Note:n ?400.The factor loading is obtained after the oblique promax rotation.Italicized values show factor loading of more than 0.4.

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The International Journal of Human Resource Management757 (1990)who created scales for career motivation(London1983),a comprehensive concept of career attitude,a specialty commitment scale was created.In concrete terms,similarly with career goal,job-specialties were believed to be included in the dimension of career identity,an important element in career motivation.I established the nine items by changing goals among the items of same dimension from‘career’and‘career goal’to ‘job-specialties’,‘specialty?eld’and‘specialty competency’(Table2).

As the inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy scale and specialty commitment scale in this study were newly established,there are few data on validity and reliability in prior studies.Therefore,we shall examine whether the discriminant validity is found between possibility of promotion(cf.McEnrue1989)and career satisfaction scale(cf.Greenhaus, Parasuraman and Wormley1990),which are key career attitudes,with the view that both scales are included in career attitudes in a broad sense.

Control variables

For control variables,I used gender,age,academic background and position,which are believed to affect the relationship between perceptions of HRM and retention.

Results

To examine the convergence validity of perceptions of HRM scale,a factor analysis was conducted based on major factor method(Table1).Five factors with a?xed value of more than1.0were extracted,and their cumulative contribution percentage was67.2%.As a result,each factor was interpreted as follows:the?rst factor as rewards based on fair appraisal,the second factor as comprehensive training and development,the third factor as job security,the fourth factor as enrichment of the employee bene?ts(work–life balance emphasis)and the?fth factor as careful recruiting Realistic Job Preview(RJP).The italicized factor loading added items of more than0.4and formed each scale from its average value.The perceptions of HRM of the commitment model are considered through the aforementioned?ve dimensions.

To examine that the two scales of attitudes toward job-specialties analyzed in this study are discriminated from other similar career attitudes items(career satisfaction and possibility of promotion),or in other words,to examine the discriminant validity,factor analysis using the principal factor method was carried out.After eliminating items with high load in the multiple factors,four factors with a?xed value of more than1.0were extracted,and their cumulative contribution percentage was63.4%(Table2).As a result, high factor loading were shown in?rst factor for inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy, the second factor for career satisfaction,third factor for possibility of promotion and the fourth factor for specialty commitment,respectively.From this,the discriminant validity between the scales was veri?ed.

Table3indicates the descriptive statistics,reliability and coef?cients among variables of scale used in this study(excludes career satisfaction and possibility of promotion).

To verify Hypotheses1–3,a multiple regression analysis was held with turnover intention as the dependent variable and perceptions of HRM,attitudes toward job-specialties,as the independent variable(Table4).

First of all,in terms of impact of perceptions of HRM on turnover intention,a signi?cant negative effect was found in rewards based on fair appraisal and job security on turnover intention(individual HRM model).However,because positivity was also found in coef?cients in other dimensions,the overall average value(total perceptions of HRM)

T a b l e 3.D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s ,r e l i a b i l i t y a n d c o r r e l a t i o n a l c o e f ?c i e n t s a m o n g v a r i a b l e s .

V a r i a b l e s M e a n S D

123456789101112

(1)G e n d e r a 0.7900.408—

(2)A g e 42.078.5840.356**—(3)A c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d b

2.600.9290.102*20.006—(4)P o s i t i o n c

2.3431.5610.302**0.496**0.247**—(5)F a i r a p p r a i s a l 2.6990.8070.113*0.0580.0960.243**(0.896)(6)T r a i n i n g &d e v e l o p m e n t 2.6750.8160.0590.0890.0780.173**0.739**(0.898)(7)J o b s e c u r i t y

3.1980.8280.0230.0220.116*0.0910.393**0.479**(0.770)(8)C a r e f u l r e c r u i t i n g 2.8300.9250.0450.0380.0880.111*0.594**0.595**0.324**(0.836)(9)E m p l o y e e b e n e ?t s 3.1270.9920.0060.0690.115*0.148**0.365**0.512**0.470**0.296**(0.842)(10)C a r e e r s e l f -e f ?c a c y 3.0350.79130.0870.0940.0620.160**0.178**0.124*0.0800.300**0.021(0.862)(11)S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 3.2070.6990.08720.0060.104*0.190**0.277**0.234**0.158**0.361**0.125*0.562**(0.744)(12)T u r n o v e r i n t e n t i o n 2.693

1.06820.08220.242**20.00420.197**20.256**20.271**20.227**20.09320.242**0.123*0.054(0.833)

N o t e :n ?400.T h e c o e f ?c i e n t a l p h a s a r e i n p a r e n t h e s e s .

*p ,0.05;**p ,0.01.a 1?‘m a l e ’a n d 0?‘f e m a l e ’.b 1?‘h i g h s c h o o l ’,2?‘A s s o c i a t e ’s ’,3?‘B a c h e l o r ’s ’,4?‘M a s t e r ’s o r P h D ’.c 1?‘s a l a r i e d e m p l o y e e o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s ’,2?‘A s s i s t a n t m a n a g e r ’,3?‘D e p u t y m a n a g e r ’,4?‘M a n a g e r ’,5?‘D e p u t y g e n e r a l m a n a g e r ’,6?‘M o r e t h a n d i r e c t o r ’.

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T a b l e 4.R e s u l t s o f r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s o f H R M a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d j o b -s p e c i a l t i e s o n r e t e n t i o n .

b

V a r i a b l e s

I n d i v i d u a l H R M m o d e l

T o t a l H R M m o d e l A p p r a i s a l -e f ?c a c y m o d e l T r a i n i n g -e f ?c a c y m o d e l S e c u r i t y -e f ?c a c y m o d e l R e c r u i t i n g -e f ?c a c y m o d e l B e n e ?t s -e f ?c a c y m o d e l

G e n d e r 0.0150.0140.0130.0140.0150.0110.015A g e 20.201***20.198***20.202***20.202***20.199***20.201***20.204***A c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d 0.0370.0360.0370.0360.0360.0390.037P o s i t i o n 20.07120.082

20.06920.07020.07420.06720.068R e w a r d s b a s e d o n f a i r a p p r a i s a l 20.172*20.166*20.172*20.172*20.167*20.172*T r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t 20.09520.09520.08920.09920.09820.091J o b s e c u r i t y 20.110*20.109*20.109*20.111*20.108*20.111*C a r e f u l r e c r u i t i n g 0.0770.0800.0770.0770.0880.076E m p l o y e e b e n e ?t s 20.091

20.09220.09120.08720.094?

20.090

T o t a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f H R M 20.319***C a r e e r s e l f -e f ?c a c y 0.155**0.173**0.146*0.149*0.156**0.143*0.156**S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 0.044

0.0590.0480.0450.046

0.044

0.043

F a i r a p p r a i s a l ￡S e l f -e f ?c a c y 20.028T r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ￡S e l f -e f ?c a c y 20.021J o b s e c u r i t y ￡S e l f -e f ?c a c y 0.030C a r e f u l r e c r u i t i n g ￡S e l f -e f ?c a c y 20.046

E m p l o y e e b e n e ?t s ￡S e l f -e f ?c a c y 20.023R 2

0.192***0.183***0.193***0.193***0.193***0.194***0.193***D R 2

0.0010.0010.0010.0020.001

N o t e :n ?400.V a r i a n c e i n ?a t i o n f a c t o r ?1.11,2.91.?

p ,0.10;*p ,0.05;**p ,0.01;***p ,0.001.

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was separated from individual perception.As a result,Hypothesis 1was veri?ed because the coef?cient was signi?cantly negative.

In addition,Hypothesis 2was veri?ed because inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy was found to have signi?cantly increased turnover intention.As specialty commitment did not affect turnover intention signi?cantly,Hypothesis 3was rejected.

The various moderators for each perception of HRM dimension and inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy were added to the multiple regression equation,and veri?ed through an F -test with an increment of coef?cient of determination (Table 4).As a result,Hypothesis 4was rejected as no signi?cant moderator effect was found.

In a similar manner,the various moderators for each perception of HRM dimension and specialty commitment were added to the multiple regression equation,and veri?ed through an F-test with an increment of coef?cient of determination (Table 5).As a result,with the exception of job security,signi?cant negative moderator effects were found in dimensions.Therefore Hypothesis 5was roughly veri?ed.

To clarify the impact of specialty commitment on the relationship between perceptions of HRM and turnover intention,an analysis by high and low groups was conducted on the four relationships with signi?cant moderator effect.Results showed that although a strengthening in perception of rewards based on fair appraisals in both the specialty commitment high and low group leads to a weakening of turnover intention,this trend is more prevalent in higher groups (Figure 2).

In both specialty commitment high and low groups,the stronger the perception that training and development were complete,the weaker the turnover intention becomes,but this trend was particularly obvious in high groups (Figure 3).

In specialty commitment high group,the stronger the perception that careful recruiting (RJP)was implemented,the weaker the turnover intention becomes.However,in contrast,turnover intention slightly increases in the low groups (Figure 4).

In both specialty commitment high and low groups,the stronger the perception of the enrichment of the employee bene?ts,the weaker the turnover intention becomes.However,this trend was particularly obvious in high groups (Figure 5).

Discussion and implications

From this study,retention effect of perceptions of HRM based on the commitment model was veri?ed on the whole.This result was consistent with many prior studies that perceived HRM by organizational practice levels.In other words,it can be said that there is a constant validity in the functional study perspective that perceived HRM from the employees’perception.

An investigation of each dimensions found that in particular,perceptions of rewards based on fair appraisal had the effect of increasing retention.By applying the perspective of procedural justice of the equity theory (Adams 1965)which refers to perceived fairness of the process and procedures until the achievement of outcome (remuneration),it is necessary to implement practices such as training of the person evaluating managerial positions which conduct HR appraisal that leads to remuneration,disclosure of results of elements and process of HR appraisal as well as establishment of opportunities for ?ling of disagreement with the HR appraisal.The implementation of these practices will increase procedural justice for employees toward their af?liated organization and will lead to an improvement in acceptance of fair appraisal of results/performance of employees.It is suggested that improving on these points and planning procedural justice in relation to the decision process contribute to retention.

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T a b l e 5.R e s u l t s o f r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s o f H R M a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d j o b -s p e c i a l t i e s o n r e t e n t i o n .

b

V a r i a b l e s

I n d i v i d u a l H R M m o d e l

A p p r a i s a l -c o m m i t m e n t m o d e l T r a i n i n g -c o m m i t m e n t m o d e l S e c u r i t y -c o m m i t m e n t m o d e l R e c r u i t i n g -c o m m i t m e n t m o d e l

B e n e ?t s -c o m m i t m e n t m o d e l

G e n d e r 0.0150.0050.0110.0130.0170.017A g e 20.201***20.199***20.201***20.201***20.194**20.205***A c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d 0.0370.0380.0360.0380.0370.038P o s i t i o n 20.07120.06720.06820.07220.06820.064R e w a r d s b a s e d o n f a i r a p p r a i s a l 20.172*20.142?

20.176*20.172*20.159*20.178*T r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t 20.09520.10320.07220.09120.10720.077J o b s e c u r i t y 20.110*20.098?

20.100?

20.109*20.097?

20.117*C a r e f u l r e c r u i t i n g 0.0770.0790.0750.0770.0990.079E n r i c h m e n t o f t h e e m p l o y e e b e n e ?t s 20.09120.08820.08820.09320.08420.087I n t e r -o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c a r e e r s e l f -e f ?c a c y 0.155**0.171**0.156**0.154**0.161**0.154**S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 0.044

0.0180.0300.0440.004

0.043

F a i r A p p r a i s a l ￡S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 20.133**T r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ￡S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 20.101*

J o b s e c u r i t y ￡S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 20.018C a r e f u l r e c r u i t i n g ￡S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 20.149**

E m p l o y e e b e n e ?t s ￡S p e c i a l t y c o m m i t m e n t 20.093*

R 2

0.192***0.208***0.202***0.192***0.212***0.201***D R 2

0.016**0.010*0.0000.020**0.009*

N o t e :n ?400;V a r i a n c e i n ?a t i o n f a c t o r ?1.11,2.91.?

p ,.10;*p ,.05;**p ,.01;***p ,.001.

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Figure 2.Impact of specialty commitment on relationship between rewards based on fair appraisal and turnover

intention.

Figure 3.Impact of specialty commitment on comprehensive training and development,and turnover

intention.

Figure 4.Impact of specialty commitment on the relationship between careful recruiting and turnover intention.

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In addition,perception of job security is found to increase retention.Originally,job security is an important pillar in Japanese management and creates a stable relationship between organizations and employees.Hence,employees will not have to fear unexpected dismissal,and can live their lives with peace of mind.In addition,even when employees plan career development in the organization for the long term,job security is taken as a precondition.Recovery of investment made by organization for cultivating talent is possible provided that the employees stay in the company to work for a certain period of time.These advantages are appraised by employees and are believed to contribute to stability.To enable employees to feel a sense of stability,strong messages that emphasize guaranteed employment within their best capabilities sent from the top management to employees will probably be most effective.

Third,the relationship between this study and the wage management was suggested.The classical economics tells us that one of the major factors to retain employees was pay level.And prior studies showed that higher pay decreases employee turnover (Batt and Valcour 2003;Fairris 2004).In the regression analysis,the age factor explains fairly stable.Age seems to be correlated with pay level.Pay level might explain well employees’intention to move.As the respondents were different employees with different pay systems,the result of the present study contains the possibility to be able to admit even by the viewpoint of the wage management.

Differences in relationship between attitudes toward job-specialties and retention were clari?ed.The awareness that one’s job-specialties are applicable to the labor market has a direct negative impact on retention.With regards to this point,most prior studies focused on employees in Europe and the United States and this study is apparently the ?rst of its kind to clarify the relationship between attitudes toward job-specialties and retention among employees in Japan,a country rooted ?rmly in lifetime employment practice.On the other hand,no direct effect was found in the level of specialty commitment on retention.Results showed that the relationship between organizational behavioral concepts with common targets is stronger than that of organizational behavioral concepts with different targets,which can be explained through the ‘domain ?t hypothesis’(Yamamoto 1996).According to this hypothesis,for instance,between intention to leave (change)and work commitment,organizational commitment,which is a commitment where the organization is the object,is assumed to have the strongest effect on turnover intention,which is the intention to leave (change)which holds the organization as

the

Figure 5.Impact of specialty commitment on relationship between enrichment of the employee bene?ts and turnover intention.

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target.In other words,the level of specialty commitment has a strong effect on intention to leave (change)from said job-specialties (not analyzed in this study),but did not have the same strong effect on the intention to leave (change)from organization of different object.From the results of this study,it was found that an employee with a high level of specialty commitment,tended to show more signi?cant retention effect if their perceptions of being fairly treated were high.Originally,job-specialties are marked by characteristics of individuality/rareness where it is different from the others or the acquisition is dif?cult.In other words,in the case of high commitment toward job-specialties that are hard to acquire or which differentiate one employee from other employees,it was found that there was a psychological mechanism that wished to stay longer in an organization with fair appraisal and treatment.

Employees with naturally high specialty commitment are highly concerned with increase in one’s own capability and career development.Therefore,it was also clari?ed that as their commitment to job-specialties increases,they will perceive that the training and development is enriching,and so a stronger retention effect is observed.This is because of the belief that training and development of organization actually makes up a large share in competency development of workers.

In addition,perception of the enrichment of the employee bene?ts of the af?liated organization tended to increase retention for employees with high specialty commitment.In modern organizations,enrichment of the employee’s bene?ts is the basic conditions for long-term work continuity for both males and females.In fact,the retention effect of policies emphasizing on work–life balance and enrichment of welfare bene?ts did not differ in terms of gender (Yamamoto 2009).On the other hand,employees with high specialty commitment want to work or continue to work long term in jobs that improve their job-specialties or enable them to develop their job-specialties.This is because to acquire job-specialties,it is necessary to experience and learn for long periods of time.Therefore it is believed that the level of specialty commitment increased the retention effect of perceptions of enrichment of the employee bene?ts.

However,effect of inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy on retention effect of perception of HRM was not found.This is believed to be because of differences in relationship between inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy and specialty commitment of HRM.According to the human capital theory (Becker 1975),in organizations mainly of non-professionals which are the object of this study,training and development in the organization mainly equip workers with special skills of the company,and not necessarily generic skills that can be applied to any organization.In other words,inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy aimed at general applicability is not in?uenced by HRM and directly effects retention.On the other hand,job-specialties,which are the object of specialty commitment,are not linked to general skills to the extent of inter-organizational career self-ef?cacy,and thus have an impact on the relationship between HRM and retention.On the whole,the importance of attitudes toward job-specialties of employees in the multi-step process model of retention was veri?ed.In other words,by taking due consideration of individual employees’awareness of job-specialties subject to an impact of implementation of HRM practices,effective retention is strongly demanded by organization.To increase retention of employees in an organization,it is necessary to improve ‘job-specialties management’by clarifying what the job-specialties are for each occupational category and job,implementing appropriate appraisal for them and establishing the environment and system that improves them in organizations in Japan as in the United States or Europe.

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Limitations and future research

First,this study was based on a cross-sectional data at one point in time.Therefore,it will be necessary to implement a longitudinal study analyzing the relationship between perceptions of HRM at the point of this survey and the retention thereafter(in the future), for it is a time-lapse study that will enable us to verify a cause-and-effect relationship between perceptions of HRM and retention.Then it will be possible to measure the validity of practices by examining how newly introduced practices and the improvement of existing practices will affect retention.

The second limitation is that this study was limited to full-time employees working in Japan,which likely prevents the generalization of the study’s?ndings.However,at least these?ndings may lead to clarifying the retention process of organizational employees in the context of Asian studies.It is hoped that surveys in the West with different cultural backgrounds and further comparative surveys between Asia and the West will be implemented in the future.

The third limitation is the further elaboration of the analysis of job-specialties and attitudes toward job-specialties.The results of this study are not suf?cient to cover all aspects of awareness of job-specialties of workers.For example,there is likely a high need to analyze aspects of values and interests regarding attitude toward job-specialties,such as those seen in career anchor.In addition,although not analyzed in this study,it is believed that veri?cation of the relationship between job-specialties and attitudes toward job-specialties suggests a move toward the drafting of HRM practices for retention of talent with high job-specialties.

Acknowledgements

This study was based on a presentation made at the14th Annual Convention of Japanese Association of Administrative Science held on26–27November2011,in Tokyo,Japan.

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人力资源外包外文翻译

人力资源外包外文翻译-标准化文件发布号：（9456-EUATWK-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DDQTY-KII

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英文 Human Resources Strategy and Change: Competence Development in a Changed Environment Michiel Berg Abstract Building competence in a changing environment is a journey. It is a journey where it is essential to have communicated and envisaged a picture of the destination. The details of this envisaged picture will look different probably upon "arrival" at the end of the journey. However, communicating the destination is essential. It helps employees to understand what the direction is. It helps employees and managers to use existing competencies along the way. Moving ahead very often demonstrates unexpected strengths in colleagues one has not been aware of. Moving ahead with a plan can also show the team their current level of competence and the desired state of competence. Explaining and talking about these differences may often prove not to be that easy and clear for many involved. A changing environment shows also weaknesses of current practices, processes, and services. It requires strong managerial skills to keep discussions having a focus on the future and preventing these discussions to turn into complaint sessions of past events. Human Resources practices and processes are executed in a triangle of employees, managers, and

客户关系管理外文文献翻译

CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT As. univ. drd. Mihaela Cornelia Prejmerean Lect. univ. dr. Alina Mihaela Dima Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Abstract: After 17 years of economical and market development, Romanian companies face a new challenge: the tough competition from the European Union and the battle for the customers. The Romanian enterprises will have to learn not only how to attract customers, but also how to keep them. Marketing programs include now aspects regarding customer orientation, relationship management, loyalty and quality. In this paper, we will follow the main aspects, characteristics, dimensions and processes of Customer Relationship Management, and we will analyze the challenges that the local companies will have to face. Examples from the financial service sector will round the actual situation of the implementation of the CRM rules and principles in Romania. Keywords: marketing information system; customer relationship management; business asset, customer acquisition; customer retention. 1. Introduction In the last decade, the majority of the companies were preoccupied with production, recession, mergers, new technologies and business regulation. Romania’s accession in the European Union will bring many advantages for further development, together with membership in a Common Market with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of movement for all the four factors of production (goods, services, capital and labor). This means that Romanian companies will compete with other companies from the EU directly in their home market. European companies are more flexible and mobile and will put a high pressure on the local companies in order to produce better products, launch better offers and services and orientate more towards their customers. High revenue equals important customer is a classic rule when the company organises its customer policy. “An imp ortant customer brings a gross amount of money for our enterprise” has become a reflex for many compa nies abroad and perhaps in Romania, too. But is this always true, or do we need more information than a simple figure reported at the end of the year? 2. Marketing information system A winning company is more productive in acquiring and retaining customers, to