英语 安全工程专业翻译
Unit1
Safety Management Systems
1. Accident Causation Models
The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment
Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s
operation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays，this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work.
Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely to suffer anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919，based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominated the safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamed solely on employees rather than the work process or poor management practices. Since investigations to discover the underlying causal factors were felt unnecessary and/or too costly, a little attention was paid to how accidents actually happened. Employees* attitudes towards risks and risk taking have been studied, e. g. by Sulzer-Azaroff. According to her, employees often behave unsafely, even when they are fully aware of the risks involved. Many research results also show that the traditional promotion methods like campaigns, posters and safety slogans have seldom increased the use of safe work practices. When backed up by other activities such as training, these measures have been somewhat more effective. Experiences on some successful methods to change employee behavior and attitudes have been reported. One well-known method is a small-group process used for
improving housekeeping in industrial workplaces. A comprehensive model of accident causation has been presented by Reason who introduced the concept of organizational error. He stated that corporate culture is the starting-point of the accident sequence. Local conditions and human behavior are only contributing factors in the build-up of the undesired event. The latent organizational failures lead to accidents and incidents when penetrating system’s defenses and barriers. Gmoeneweg has developed Reason’s model by classifying the typical latent error types. His TRIPOD mode! calls the different errors as General Failure Types ( CFTs). The concept of organizational error is in conjunction with the fact that some organizations behave more safely than others. It is often said that these organizations have good safety culture. After the Chernobyl accident，this term became well-known also to the public.
Loss prevention is a concept that is often used in the context of hazard control in process industry. Lees has pointed out that loss prevention differs from traditional safety approach in several ways. For example, there is more emphasis on foreseeing hazards and taking actions before accidents occur. Also, there is more emphasis on a systematic rather than a trial and error approach. This is also natural, since accidents in process industry can have catastrophic consequences. Besides the injuries to people, I he damage to plant and loss of profit are major concerns in loss prevention. The future research on the ultimate causes of accidents seems to focus on
the functioning and management of the organization. The strategic management, leadership, motivation, and the personnel's visible and hidden values are some issues that are now under intensive study.
2. Safety Management as an Organizational Activity
Safety management is one of the management activities of a company. Different companies have different management practices，and also different ways to control health and safety hazards. Organizational culture is a major component affecting organizational performance and behavior. One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said that organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions—invented，discovered, or developed by a given group as it leans to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems". The concept of safety culture is today under intensive study in industrialized countries. Booth & Lee have stated that an organization's safety culture is a subset of the overall organizational culture. This argument, in fact, suggests that a company’s organizational culture also determines the maximum level of safety the company can reach. The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and
proficiency of, an organization’s health and saf ety management. Furthermore, organizations with a positive safety culture are characterized by communications founded on mutual trust, by shared perceptions of the importance of safety, and by confidence in the efficacy of preventive measures. There have been many attempts to develop methods for measuring safety culture. Williamson el al. have summarized some of the factors that the various studies have shown to influence organization's safety culture. These include ：organizational responsibility for safety, management attitudes towards safety, management activity in responding to health and safety problems, safety training and promotion，level of risk at the workplace，workers' involvement in safety，and status of the safety officer and the safety committee.
Organizations behave differently in the different parts of the world. This causes visible differences also in safety activities, both in employee level and in the management level. Reasons for these differences are discussed in the following. The studies of Wobbe reveal that shop-floor workers in the USA are, in general, less trained and less adaptable than those in Germany or Japan. Wobbe claims that one reason for this is that, in the USA, companies providing further training for their staff can expect to lose these people to the competitors. This is not so common in Europe or in Japan. Furthermore ，for unionized companies in the USA，seniority is valued very highly，while training or individual’s skills and
qualifications do not effect job security，employment, and wage levels very much. Oxenburgh has studied the total costs of absence from work, and found that local culture and legislation has a strong effect on absenteeism rates. For example, the national systems for paying and receiving compensation explain the differences to some extent. Oxenburgh mentions Sweden as a high absenteeism country, and Australia as a low absenteeism country. In Sweden injuries and illnesses are paid by the state social security system, while in Australia, the employer pays all these costs, including illnesses not related to work. Comparison of accident statistics reveals that there are great national differences in accident frequencies and in the accident related absenteeism from work. Some of the differences can be explained by the different accident reporting systems. For example, in some countries only absenteeism lasting more than three working days is included in the statistics. The frequency of minor accidents varies a lot according to the possibility to arrange substitutive work to the injured worker. Placing the injured worker to another job or to training is a common practice for example in the USA and in the UK, while in the Scandinavian countries this is a rarely used procedure
Some organizations are more aware of the importance of health and safety at work than others. Clear development stages can be found in the process of improving the management of safety. Waring has divided organizations to three classes according to their maturity and ability to create an
effective safety management system. Waring calls the three organizational models as the mechanical model, the socio-technical model, and the human activity system approach. In the mechanical model, the structures and processes of an organization are well-defined and logical, but people as individuals, groups, and the whole organizations are not considered. The socio-technical model is an approach to work design which recognizes the interaction of technology' and people，and which produces work systems that are technically effective and have characters that lead to high job satisfaction. A positive dimension in this model is that human factors are seen important, for example, in communication, training and emergency responses. The last model, the human activity system approach focuses on people, and points out the complexity of organizations. The strength of this approach is that both formal (or technical) paradigms and human aspects like motivation, learning, culture, and power relations are considered. Waring points out that although the human activity approach does not automatically guarantee success, it has proven to be beneficial to organizations in the long run.
3. Safety Policy and Planning
A status review is the basis for a safety policy and the planning of safety activities. According to BS 8800 a status review should compare the company’s existing arrangements with the applicable legal requirements, organization's current safety guidelines, best practices in the
industry’s branch，and the existing resources directed to safety activities. A thorough review ensures that the safety policy and the activities are developed specifically according to the needs of the company.
A safety policy is the management’s expression of the direction to be followed in the organization. According to Petersen, a safety policy should commit the management at all levels and it should indicate which tasks, responsibilities and decisions are left to lower-level management. Booth and Lee have stated that a safety policy should also include safety goals as well as quantified objectives and priorities. The standard BS 8800 suggests that in the safety policy，management should show commitment to the following subjects ：Health and safety are recognized as an integral part of business performance ；A high level of health and safety performance is a goal which is achieved by using the legal requirements as the minimum, and where the continual cost- effective improvement of performance is the way to do things；
Adequate and appropriate resources are provided to implement the safety policy；
The health and safety objectives are set and published at least by internal notification ；The management of health and safety is a prime responsibility of the management ，from the most senior executive to the supervisory level ；
The policy is understood, implemented, and maintained at all levels in the organization ；Employees are involved and consulted in order to gain commitment to the policy and its implementation;
The policy and the management system are reviewed periodically, and the compliance of the policy is audited on a regular basis;
It is ensured that employees receive appropriate training，and are competent to carry out their duties and responsibilities.
Some companies have developed so-called “safety principles’which cover the key areas of the company’s safety policy. These principles are utilized as safety guidelines hat are easy to remember, and which are often placed on wall-boards and other public areas in the company. As an example, the DuPont company's safety principles are the following：All injuries and occupational illnesses can be prevented. Management is responsible for safely. Safety is an individual’s responsibility and a condition of employment. Training is an essential element for safe workplaces. Audits must be conducted. All deficiencies must be corrected promptly.
It is essential to investigate all injuries and incidents with injury potential. Off-the-job safety is an important part of the safety effort. It is good business to prevent injuries and illnesses.
People are the most important element of the safety and occupational health program.
The safety policy should be put into practice through careful planning of
the safety activities. Planning means determination of the safety objectives and priorities, and preparation of the working program to achieve the goals. A company can have different objectives and priorities according to the nature of the typical hazards, and the current status of hazard control. However, some common elements to a safety activity planning can be found. According to BS 8800，the plan should include ：appropriate and adequately resourced arrangements, competent personnel who have defined responsibilities, and effective channels of communication；procedures to set objectives, device and implement plans to meet the objectives ,and to monitor both the implementation and effectiveness of the plans;
description of the hazard identification and assessment activities; methods and techniques for measuring safety performance, and in such way that absence of hazardous events is not seen as evidence that all is well. In the Member States of the European Union, the “framework” Directive 89/391 / EEC obligates the employer to prepare a safety program that defines how the effects of technology, work methods, working conditions, social relationships and work environment are controlled. According lo Walters, this directive was originally passed to harmonize the overall safety strategies within the Member States, and to establish a common approach to the management and organization of safety at work. Planning of the safety activities is often done within the framework of quality and environmental
management systems.
一单元
安全管理体系
1、事故致因模型
安全管理的最重要的目的是维护和促进工人的健康和安全工作。了解为什么和怎样事故和其他有害事件的发展是非常重要的计划预防活动时。事故理论旨在澄清事故现象，并解释说，导致事故发生的机制。所有现代的理论都是基于事故致因模型而试图解释，最后产生损失的事件序列。在古代，意外被视为上帝的行为，很少可以做，以防止他们。在20世纪初，它被认为体质较差的条件是事故的根源。安全从业人员集中于提高机器防护，家务和检查。在大多数情况下，发生事故的是两件事情的结果是：人的行为，而物理或社会环境的条件。
彼得森延长了因果关系理论从个体行为，因地制宜的管理体制。他的结论是不安全行为，不安全状态，事故是一些错误的组织管理系统的所有症状。此外，他指出，这是高层管理谁负责建立这样一个能够有效控制关联到组织的运作风险系统。由一个人完成的错误可能是有意的还是无意的。拉斯穆森和Jensen已经提出了三个层次的技能规则知识模型描述了不同类型的人为错误的起源。如今，这种模式是在人为的失误，在工作中检验的标准方法之一。
事故倾向性模型表明，有些人更容易患anaccident比其他人。第一种模式是在1919年的基础上，在mumilions工厂的统计检验。这种模式占主导地位的安全思考和研究了近50年，它仍然在一些组织使用。由于这种思维的结果，事故是完全归咎于员工，而不是工作过程或管理不善。由于调查，以发现潜在的偶然因素被认为不必要和/或成本太高，有点注意了事故如何实际发生。 *员工态度对风险
和承担风险进行了研究，电子。克由苏尔寿 - Azaroff。据她介绍，员工往往不安全的行为，即使他们完全了解所涉及的风险。许多研究结果还表明，传统的促销方法，如宣传活动，海报和安全标语很少增加了使用的安全工作实践。当其他活动，如培训备份，这些措施已较为有效。已经报道了一些成功的方法来改变员工的行为和态度的体验。一个众所周知的方法是用于改善管家在工业场所一个小团体的过程。事故原因的综合模型已经提出了理性谁介绍组织错误的概念。他说，企业文化是企业的出发点事故序列。
当地的条件和人类行为的唯一起作用的因素在集结了不需要的事件。穿透系统的防御和障碍时，潜伏组织失灵导致事故和事故征候。 Gmoeneweg已通过分类典型的潜在错误类型发展原因的模型。他的三脚架模式！调用不同的错误，一般故障类型（CFTS）。组织错误的概念是与事实有些组织表现比其他人更放心地结合。人们常常说，这些组织具有良好的安全文化。切尔诺贝利事故发生后，这个词成为知名的也给公众。
防损是一个经常在过程工业危险源监控的情况下使用的一个概念。酒糟指出，防损不同于传统的安全方法在几个方面。例如，更强调预见的危害，并采取行动，事故发生之前。此外，还有更强调系统性，而??不是一个试错的方法。这也是自然的，因为在过程工业事故可能产生灾难性的后果。除了受伤的人，我他破坏种植和利润损失是损失预防重大关切。对事故的根本原因，未来的研究似乎集中在组织的运作和管理。战略管理，领导，激励，以及人员的可见和隐藏的价值观有些问题是现在正在深入研究。
2、安全管理作为组织活动
安全管理是一个公司的管理活动之一。不同的企业有不同的管理方式，也不
同的方式来控制健康和安全隐患。组织文化是影响组织绩效和行为的重要组成部分。对于组织文化的一个全面的定义已经提出了施恩谁曾表示，组织文化是“的格局基本假设，发明，发现，或由某一组开发，因为它偏向应对外部适应和内部整合的问题 - 这一直运作良好，足以被认为是有效的，因此，要教给新成员的感知，思考和感觉有关这些问题的正确方式。“安全文化的概念如今正在工业化的深入研究国家展位和李都表示，一个组织的安全文化是整个组织文化的一个子集。这种说法，其实表明，一个公司的组织文化也决定了安全的最高水平，公司可以达到。的安全文化组织是个人和群体的价值观，态度，观念，能力和行为模式的确定承诺的产品和风格，以及一个组织的健康和安全管理水平。此外，以积极的安全文化机构的特点通过建立在相互信任，通过安全的重要性共享的观念沟通，并通过信心的预防措施的有效性。已经有许多尝试开发用于测量安全文化的方法。威廉姆森EL AL。总结了一些的因素各种研究表明，影响企业的安全文化，其中包括：用于对在应对健康和安全问题，安全培训和推广，风险的工作场所层面，在工人参与安全，管理活动的安全，管理态度的组织责任安全，安全主任和安全委员会的地位。
组织的行为不同，在世界的不同部分。这将导致明显的差异也是安全的活动，无论是在员工水平和管理水平。这些差异的原因将在下面讨论。沃伯的研究表明，车间工人在美国，一般来说，少训练，比德国或日本较难适应。沃伯声称，一个原因是，在美国，企业提供进??一步的培训，他们的工作人员可以指望这些人失去了竞争对手。这是不是很常见于欧洲或日本。此外，对于工会组织的企业，在美国，排名先后乃非常重视，而训练或个人的技能和资历不影响工作保障，就业和工资水平非常。 Oxenburgh已经研究没有从工作的总成本，并发现当地的文化
和法律对缺勤率有很大的影响。例如，国家系统支付和接收补偿解释这些差异在一定程度上。 Oxenburgh提到瑞典的高缺勤率的国家，澳大利亚作为一个低旷工国家。在瑞典，伤害和疾病都是由国家社会保障体系支付，而在澳洲，雇主支付所有这些费用，包括与工作无关的疾病。事故统计数据比较表明，有在事故频率和从工作中意外缺勤伟大的民族差异。有些分歧可以通过不同的事故报告系统来解释。例如，在有些国家只缺勤持续超过三个工作日被统计在内。小事故的频率根据安排替代性的工作，受伤工人的可能性是十分不同的。配售受伤工人到另一份工作或培训，例如在美国和英国的普遍做法，而在斯堪的纳维亚国家，这是一个很少使用的程序。
有些组织更加意识到健康和安全的工作比其他人的重要性。清晰的发展阶段，可以在提高安全性的管理过程中被发现。华林划分了组织三类根据其成熟度，并建立一个有效的安全管理制度的能力。华林调用三种组织模式的力学模型，社会和技??术模式，以及人类活动的系统方法。在力学模型，一个组织的结构和流程都明确定义和逻辑，但人们作为个体，群体和整个组织都没有考虑。社会和技术模式，是设计工作，其中确认技术“和人互动，并产生了在技术上是有效的，并有导致高工作满意度的字符工作制度的方法。在此模型中的正维是人为因素被视为重要的，例如，在通信，培训和紧急响应。最后的模型中，人类活动的系统方法侧重于人，并指出了组织的复杂性。这种方法的优势在于，正式（或技术）的范式和人力方面，如动机，学习，文化和权力关系的考虑。韦林指出，虽然人类活动的做法并不能自动保证成功，它已被证明是对组织的长远有利。
3、安全政策和规划
一个状态复习是基础，安全政策和安全活动的规划。根据BS 8800状态审查
应适用的法律要求，组织当前的安全指引，在行业中的分支的最佳实践，并针对安全活动的现有资源比较公司的现行安排。彻底审查，确保安全政策和活动，是根据公司的需要而开发的安全政策，是应遵循的组织方向的管理层的表现。据彼得森，安全政策应提交各级管理人员，并应说明哪些任务，职责和决定都留给较低级别??的管理。 Booth和李都表示，安全策略还应该包括安全目标以及量化的目标和优先事项。标准BS 8800表明，在安全政策，管理层应做出承诺以下主题：健康和安全被确认为经营业绩的组成部分;的健康和安全性能高的水平是由使用达到一个目标法律规定的最低限度，并在那里的表现持续符合成本效益的改善是做事情的方式;
提供足够和适当的资源来实施安全政策;
健康和安全目标的制定及公布至少以内部通知，健康与安全的管理是管理的首要责任，从最高级管理人员的监管水平;
该政策的理解，实施和维持在各级组织中，员工参与和协商，以获得承诺政策及其执行情况;
政策和管理制度进行定期评审，以及政策的合规性审核定期;
它是确保员工接受适当的培训，并有能力履行其职责及责任。
一些公司已经开发了所谓的“安全原则”，涵盖了公司的安全政策的关键领域。是利用这些原则作为安全指引帽子很容易记住，而且这往往是放置在墙板和在公司的其他公共场所。作为一个例子，杜邦公司的安全原则如下：所有的伤害和职业病是可以预防的。管理层负责安全。安全是个人的责任和就业的条件。培训是安全的工作场所的基本要素。审计工作必须进行。所有不足之处要及时纠正。
关键是要调查所有伤害和事故与伤害的潜力。场外的工作安全是安全工作的重要
组成部分。这是很好的业务，以防止受伤和疾病。
人是安全和职业健康计划中最重要的元素。
安全政策应通过精心策划的安全活动付诸实践。规划是指确定的安全目标和优先事项，并编制工作程序，实现了目标。一个公司可以有不同的目标和优先事项根据典型事故的性质，危害和控制的当前状态。然而，一些共同的元素到一个安全的活动策划都可以找到。根据BS 8800，该计划应包括：适当和足够的资源安排，谁曾明确责任主管人员和有效的沟通渠道;
程序来设定目标，设备和实施计划，以实现这些目标，并同时监测的实施和计划的有效性;
的危险识别和评估活动的说明;
方法和技术用于测量安全性能，并在这样的方式，没有危险的事件并没有被看作证据，一切都很好。
在欧盟成员国中，“框架”指令391分之89/ EEC责成雇主准备定义技术，工作方法，工作条件，社会关系和工作环境的影响，如何控制安全程序。据罗沃尔特斯，该指令原本是通过协调的整体安全战略中的会员国，并建立一个共同的方法来安全工作的管理和组织。安全活动策划往往是质量和环境管理体系的框架内进行的。Unit2
System Safety Engineering
1.System Safety
Safety has been intentionally integrated into the design and development of many systems. In some instances, however, the safety realized in a system was only a byproduct of good engineering practice. As systems have become
more complex and expensive ,safety problems have become more acute. Because of accelerating technology and demand s for a “first time safe” operation, a need has arisen to formally organize safety efforts throughout a system's life cycle. To meet this need, the concepts of system safety and the field of system safety engineering have evolved.
System safety concepts are based on the idea that an optimum degree of safety can be achieved within the constraints of ?>stem effectiveness. This optimum is attained through a logical reasoning process. Accidents, or potential accidents, are first considered to be the result of a number of interacting causes within the system. From a deliberate analysis of the system，each accident cause and interaction is logically identified and evaluated. Work may then be performed to eliminate or otherwise control these accident causes.
System safety engineering draws upon system safety concepts and the approaches used in system engineering. Its objective is to safely integrate all system components in a manner consistent with other system criteria. It involves the application of scientific and management principles for the timely recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards. Through the logical programming of these efforts over a system's life cycle，the desired level of safety can be realized.
2. System Safety Program
The degree of safety achieved in a system depends on the importance it is
given by system designers, managers, and operators. The efforts necessary to assure that sufficient emphasis is placed on system safety are often organized into formal programs. The objectives of such programs are to recognize，evaluate，and control system hazards as early in the life cycle as possible. Adequate safety input during the initial phases is the key to produce an inherently safe system. Effective system safety programs also eliminate the schedule delays and costly changes that often result in systems that do not have adequate safety planning.
Concept Phase. Program activities in the concept phase include establishing safety criteria within the definition of the system task. These criteria normally provide for compliance with accepted safety standards such as those contained in government regulations. The maximum risks that are acceptable in system operation may also be specified in the task definition.
A gross hazard analysis is often performed for each alternative approach to system design. The results of these analyses highlight special areas for safety consideration and are useful in evaluating each alternative. Knowledge of the safety experience of related systems will also aid in selecting the best alternative. In addition，program requirements and schedules for the remainder of the life cycle are established in the concept phase.
Design Phase. equipment specifications, maintenance plans，training plans, proposed system procedures, and other design materials arc reviewed and
evaluated during the design phase. Extensive hazard analyses are also conducted to identify and resolve potential safety problems. All system components and interactions are studied to predict the risks that will be involved in system operation. Design changes are then made to minimize these risks. Knowledge of similar systems is also helpful in this phase. Of particular interest are measures taken to correct design features that resulted in accidents. Similar accidents may be avoided by including the same corrective measures in the specifications that emerge from the design phase.
Development Phase. During the development phase, system safety programs assure that the design requirements are incorporated as the system is generated. Hazard analyses are performed or updated. Additional studies or tests are conducted to verify the adequacy of safety design features. Training courses for operating personnel are reviewed to confirm that there is satisfactory coverage of safety aspects. Refinements of system design often result from these evaluations to improve system safety prior to the operation phase.
Operation Phase. Periodic safety inspections, maintenance, training, and performance reviews are conducted in the operation phase to maintain or improve the safety achieved previously. Hazard analyses are updated to determine the impact of any system changes, and action is taken to control any hazards that result from such changes. Similar action is taken following
any accident or malfunction to correct deficiencies that have been overlooked.
Disposal Phase. Program efforts are continued through the final phase of the life cycle. System disposal procedures are reviewed and monitored. Special precautions are taken in disposing of hazardous materials, equipment, etc.
Hazard Analysis
The heart of a system safety program is in the performance of hazard analyses. These efforts also involve most of the detail work of system safety engineering. Analyses are conducted to identify and evaluate hazards within a system. With this information, responsible officials may determine the safest, most efficient means of controlling the hazards identified. With its accident sources eliminated, the entire system also becomes more effective in performing its task. In general, hazard analyses are conducted as follows ：
Gain an understanding of the system.
Define the scope and purpose of the analysis.
Select and apply an analysis technique.
Evaluate the results.
Hazard analysis is not an intuitive process. For an analysis to be meaningful, it must be logical，accurate，descriptive of the system, and based on valid assumptions. Its success largely depends on the skill and
各专业的英文翻译
中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务，为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence
翻译基本理论知识
翻译概述（1） 一、学科特点 翻译是一种跨越时空的语言活动，是"把一种语言已经表达出来的东西用另一种语言准确而完整地重新表达出来"(范存忠："漫谈翻译"《翻译理论与技巧》中国对外翻译出版公司，1985，p.80), 是"从语义到文体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息"（谭载喜：《奈达论翻译》中国对外翻译出版公司，1984，p.10）。翻译虽为个体所承作，却是一种社会活动，一门综合性很强的学科。它既有很强的理论性又有丰富的实践内涵。就前者而言，翻译经过千百年来各国翻译家的共同努力，已经在语言学、文学、文化、心理学、人类学、哲学和教育学等学科的基础上初步建立了一套理论体系，并在具体实践中总结出了一套行之有效的跨文化和语言转换模式。随着科学的日益进步，这种体系和模式正处在不断地完善之中。就后者而言，翻译是人类社会活动的产物，具有很强的实践性。翻译理论与实践的关系是辨证的；翻译理论产生于翻译实践，反过来又指导实践，实践转过来又丰富翻译理论。可以说，没有社会实践就不会有翻译理论的产生；没有翻译理论作为指导，翻译实践就会难免走弯路。因此，学好翻译既要重视翻译理论的学习，又要加强翻译实践；理论联系实际，这是我们学好翻译的必由之路。 二、为什么可能有翻译 翻译是人类社会发展和进步的需要，因为人类社会要发展进步就需要在不同文化的民族之间进行沟通，而这一全过程都离不开翻译。正如Steiner和张培基所说的那样：Translating it is that openeth the window, to let in the light; that breaketh the shell, that we may eat the kernel. (Steiner) 翻译是沟通各族人民的思想，促进政治、经济、文化、科学、技术交流的重要手段，
资料：《安全工程专业英语(部分翻译)》
Unit 1 safety management system Accident causation models 事故致因理论 Safety management 安全管理Physical conditions 物质条件Machine guarding 机械保护装置House-keeping 工作场所管理 Top management 高层管理人员Human errors 人因失误 Accident-proneness models 事故倾向模型Munitions factory 军工厂 Causal factors 起因 Risking taking 冒险行为 Corporate culture 企业文化 Loss prevention 损失预防 Process industry 制造工业 Hazard control 危险控制 Intensive study 广泛研究Organizational performance 企业绩效Mutual trust 相互信任Safety officer 安全官员Safety committee 安全委员会Shop-floor 生产区Unionized company 集团公司Seniority 资历、工龄Local culture 当地文化Absenteeism rate 缺勤率Power relations 权力关系 Status review 状态审查 Lower-level management 低层管理者Business performance 组织绩效Most senior executive 高级主管Supervisory level 监督层Safety principle 安全规则 Wall-board 公告栏Implement plan 执行计划 Hazard identification 危险辨识Safety performance 安全性能 One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said the organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions –invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration –that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” 译文：Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment t o, and the style and proficiency of , an organization’s health and safety management. 译文：组织的安全文化由以下几项内容组成：个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和行为方式。这种行为方式决定了个人或团体对组织健康安全管理的责任，以及组织健康安全管理的形式和熟练程度。
电子信息工程专业英语作业3
Lesson eight 第八课 Ⅱ.翻译句子，并注意remain和above的词类和词义 2. In this case the voltage applied must remain unchanged. 在这种情况下，那个应用电压必须保持不变 4. If you take 3 from 8, 5 remain. 如果从8中拿走3，剩5. 6. The above property was discovered by Faraday. 法拉第发现以上性质。 8. Lenz states that the self-induced emf impedes any change of current and tends to support the former current value. The above is known as Lenz’s law. 楞茨陈述自感电动势阻止电流的变化而保持先前电流的值。上面就是我们所知的楞 次定律。 Ⅲ.翻译句子，注意some的词义 2. That radio receiver weighs some five kilograms. 那个无线接收器重五公斤。 4. Some element in the substance is not known. 物质中的一些元素是人们不知道的。 Ⅳ.翻译句子，注意句中one 的不同用法和词义。 2. This concept was discussed in Chapter One. 这个概念在第一张讨论过。 4. No one can lift this equipment. 没人能举起这件设备。 6. This chapter will deal with one of the three functions of a turning circuit. 这章我们将介绍螺旋电路三个功能中的一个。 8. Before one studies a system, it is necessary to define and discuss some important terms. 在研究一个系统之前，确定且讨论一些重要的术语是有必要的。 Ⅴ.画出句中的名词从句，说明其种类，并将句子译成汉语。 2. These experiments do not show which particles. 这些实验不能显示他们的粒子结构。 4. The operating point is determined by how much bias is used. 操作要点是被用多少偏压决定的。 6. It is not important how this voltage is produced. 这个电压是怎么产生的并不重要。 8. It may be questioned whether this approach is the best for the physicist. 这种方式最适合于医生可能会被质疑。 10. This ball may be used to determine whether that body is charged. 这个球可能用于检测是否身体是带电的。 12. It is known that charged particles emit electromagnetic waves whenever they are accelerated. 众所周知的当电子被加速他们就会发射电磁波。 14. The value of this factor determines how fast the amplitude of the current
英语课后翻译答案新
U n i t1 1. 任何年满18岁的人都有资格投票。(be eligible to, vote) Anyone over the age of 18 is eligible to vote. 2. 每学期开学前，这些奖学金的申请表格就会由学校发给每一个学生。(apply for, scholarship) A form to apply for these scholarships is sent by the university to every student before the start of every semester. 3. 遵照医生的建议，我决定戒烟。(on the advice of) On the advice of my doctor, I decided to give up smoking. 4. 公园位于县城的正中央。(be located in) The park is located right in the center of town. 5. 这所大学提供了我们所需的所有材料和设备。(facilities) The university provides all the materials and facilities we desire. 1. 他们花了多年的时间寻找内心的平静，但是收效甚微。(search for) They spent many years searching for peace of mind, but with little success. 2. 这种新药的成功研制已经使许多疾病的治疗发生了根本性的变革。
选矿专业英语
1 总论 采矿mining 地下采矿underground mining 露天采矿open cut mining, open pit mining, surface mining 采矿工程mining engineering 选矿（学）mineral dressing, ore beneficiation, mineral processing 矿物工程mineral engineering 冶金（学）metallurgy 过程冶金（学）process metallurgy 提取冶金（学）extractive metallurgy 化学冶金（学）chemical metallurgy 物理冶金（学）physical metallurgy 金属学Metallkunde 冶金过程物理化学physical chemistry of process metallurgy 冶金反应工程学metallurgical reaction engineering 冶金工程metallurgical engineering 钢铁冶金（学）ferrous metallurgy, metallurgy of iron and steel 有色冶金(学)nonferrous metallurgy 真空冶金(学)vacuum metallurgy 等离子冶金(学)plasma metallurgy 微生物冶金(学)microbial metallurgy 喷射冶金(学)injection metallurgy 钢包冶金(学)ladle metallurgy 二次冶金(学)secondary metallurgy 机械冶金(学)mechanical metallurgy 焊接冶金(学)welding metallurgy 粉末冶金(学)powder metallurgy 铸造学foundry 火法冶金(学)pyrometallurgy 湿法冶金(学)hydrometallurgy 电冶金(学)electrometallurgy 氯冶金(学)chlorine metallurgy 矿物资源综合利用engineering of comprehensive utilization of mineral resources 中国金属学会The Chinese Society for Metals 中国有色金属学会The Nonferrous Metals Society of China 2 采矿 采矿工艺mining technology 有用矿物valuable mineral 冶金矿产原料metallurgical mineral raw materials 矿床mineral deposit 特殊采矿specialized mining 海洋采矿oceanic mining, marine mining 矿田mine field
专业知识与翻译
PPT: 第二页： When you have already acquired a good ability in translation, it’s important for you to storage professional knowledge in mind as more as possible. 1.In financial field: when it comes to 供给and 需求，we say supply and demand in stead of provision and need。 第三页 2.After this week’s disappointing economic figures, China’s central bank said Saturday that it would reduce the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves. If you have some specific professional knowledge, you know what does“the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves”mean the moment you see the expression. It means“存款准备金”which is given to the central bank by commercial bank. 3.. The financial futures and options markets which now encircle the globe have risk as their keynote. How to translate “financial futures”and “options markets”？ It means “期货”and “期权”。So it can be translated into“金融期货与期权是目前全球范围内最具冒险性的金融衍生产品”。 第四页：with the development of science and technology , more and more materials concerning science and technology are required to be translated, which puts a high demand on us translators. 1. For example, in scientific and technological area: bedplate has a lot of meanings,such as“底座”、“机座”、“座板”、“底板” 在Cylinder block and bedplate are made of cast-iron．(气缸体和底座均由铸铁制成)句中，we translate “bedplate”to“底座”，it is because in diesel engine，“bedplate”means“底座”或“机座”，not“底板”。However,this sentence: The frame may or may not be provided with a bedplate．(机座可连同底板供应，也可不带底板)，“bedplate”should be translated into “底板”，because底板is a part of electrical machine. 2. In scientific English, different words may have the same meaning. In radio technology, vacuum tube，electron tube名称不同，实际上是同一件东西，如果不知道这一点，而是分别译为“真空管”和“电子管”，译文势必引起混乱。又如比较常见的“AC generator”和“ahemator”都指交流发电机。
电子信息工程专业英语B篇译文
果粒橙 图解:译文“蓝色” Unit 6 The Principle of PCM PCM原理 Pcm is dependent on three separate operations, sampling, quantizing, and coding. Many different schemes for performing these three functions have evolved during recent years, and we shall describe the main ones. In these descriptions we shall see how a speech channel of telephone quality may be conveyed as a series of amplitude values, each value being represented, that is, coded as a sequence of 8 binary digits. Furthermore, we shall prove that a minimum theoretical sampling frequency of order 6.8 kilohertz(khz) is required to convey a voice channel occupying the range 300 HZ to 3.4 Khz. Practical equipments, however, normally use3 a sampling rate of 8 khz, and if 8-digits per sample value are used, the voice channel becomes represented by a stream of pulses with a repetition rate of 64khz. Fig .1-1 illustrates the sampling, quantizing, and coding processes. PCM的构成依赖于三个环节，即采样、量化和编码。近年来，人们对这三个环节的实现提出了许多不同的方案，我们将对其中的一些主要的方案进行讨论。在这些讨 论中，我们会看到话路中的语声信号是如何转换成幅值序列的，而每个幅值又被编码，即以8位二进制数的序列表示。而且，我们将证明，为了转换频率范围为300HZ— 3.4KHZ的话路信号，理论上最小采样频率须为6.8khz。但是，实际设备通常用8khz 的采样速率，而如果每个样值用8位码的话，则话路是由一个重复速率为64khz的脉 冲流来表示的。图1-1表示了采样、量化、编码的过程。 Reexamination of our simple example shows us that the speech signal of maximum frequency 3.4khz has been represented by a signal of frequency 64khz. However, if only 4-digits per sample value had been used, the quality of transmission would drop, and the repetition rate of the pulses would be reduced to 32khz. Thus the quality of transmission is dependent on the pulse repetition rate, and for digital communication systems these two variables may be interchanged most efficiently. 让我们再研究一下上面提到的简单例子。可以看出，最高频率为3.4khz的话音信号适用64khz的（脉冲流）信号来表示的。但是，如果每个样值中用4位（码）表示，则传输质量会下降，而脉冲的重复速率也将减小到32khz。因而传输质量是取决于脉 冲重复速率的。对于数字通信系统，这两个量之间极明显的互相影响着。 Digital transmission provides a powerful method for overcoming noisy environments. Noise can be introduced into transmission patch in many different ways : perhaps via a nearby lightning strike, the sparking of a car ignition system, or the thermal low-level noise within the communication equipment itself. It is the relationship of the true signal to the noise signal, known as the signal-to-noise ratio, which is of the most interest to the communication engineer.Basically, if the signal is very large compared to the noise level, then a perfect message can take place; however, this is not always the case. For example, the signal received from a
(完整版)医学专业英语翻译及答案
Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、
翻译基础知识
翻译基础知识 一、翻译的分类 1.按所涉及的两种代码的性质，可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）、语符翻译（inersemiotic translation）。 2.按翻译主体的性质，可分为人工翻译、机器翻译（Machine Translation）两类。 3.按翻译的工具和成品形式，可分为口译和笔译。 4.按翻译的客体，亦即所译资料的性质，可分为文学翻译（literal translation）和实用翻译（pragmatic translation）。 二、译家译论 1.支谦：在三国时期，支谦的《法句经序》中提出了“因循本旨，不加文饰”的译经原则。 2.道安：晋、前秦时道安在《革卑婆沙序》中提出，“案本而传，不令有损言游字；时改倒句， 余尽实录。”道安涉及译论的佛经序文较多，最有名的是提出“五失本”、“三不易”之说。其意思是，翻译佛经在五种情况下会失去本来面目，有三件事决定了译事是很不容易的，因此必须慎之又慎。 3.彦琮：北朝末年及隋初，彦琮著《辨证论》，它可以看作是我国第一篇翻译专论，他主张译经 “宁贵朴而近理，不用巧而背源”。可见他是坚持忠实第一并倾向于直译的。 4.玄奘：唐代僧人玄奘的指导原则是：“既须求真，又须喻俗”。“求真”即追求准确，要力求“忠 实原作”，这是一切认真负责的翻译工作者的共同理想。同时必须“喻俗”，亦即使群众理解，这就是说要“通顺”。玄奘在译经中成功地运用了补充法、省略法、变位法、分合法、译名假借法、代词还原法等等翻译技巧。 5.马建忠：清末，马建忠在其《马氏文通》中提出“善译”之说：“必先将所译者与所以译者两国之 文字，深嗜笃好，字栉句比，以考彼此文字孳生之源，同异之故。所有当相之实义，委曲推究，务审其声音之高下，析其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理精深奥折之所由然。” 6.林纾：林纾强调在翻译时译者应该投入自己的主观感情，译者须与原作者或作品中人物的心灵 相交流。 7.鲁迅：鲁迅在《且介亭杂文二集》里说：“凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一 则保存着原作得丰姿”。也就是说既要通顺，又要忠实。所谓忠实，是指内容上的“信”；所谓通顺，是指表达上的“顺”。 8.茅盾：文学翻译的目标是“艺术创造性翻译”——用一种语言把原作的艺术意境传达出来，使 读者读译文时能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。 9.钱钟书：“文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语文 习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的‘投胎转世’，躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里决不会读起来像经过翻译似的。” 10.傅雷：“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。”“两国文字词类的不 同，句法构造的不同，文法与习惯的不同，修辞格律的不同，俗语的不同，即反映民族思想方式的不同，感觉深浅的不同，观点角度的不同，风俗传统信仰的不同，社会背景的不同，表现方法的不同。以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点，必须像伯乐相马，要“得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其外”。而即使最优秀的译文，其韵味较之原文仍不免过或不及。翻译时只能尽量缩短这个距离，过则求其勿太过，不及则求其勿过于不及。”
资料《安全工程专业英语部分翻译》
Ｕnｉt 1safeｔy manaｇement ｓyｓtem Ａcciｄent ｃａｕｓatｉon ｍoｄels ?事故致因理论 Ｓafety managemeｎt 安全管理 Phｙsｉｃａｌｃonditions ?物质条件 Mａcｈinｅguａrdinｇ?机械保护装置 Ｈouse—keepiｎｇ工作场所管理 Ｔｏｐmanagement 高层管理人员Ｈuman ｅｒrorｓ人因失误 Aｃcidenｔ-pｒonenｅss ｍｏdels 事故倾向模型 Muniｔｉoｎs faｃtｏrｙ?军工厂Causal fａctors?起因 Rｉskinｇtakiｎg?冒险行为 Coｒpｏraｔｅｃｕlture 企业文化 Ｌosｓprevention 损失预防 Prｏcess indusｔry?制造工业 Haｚard coｎtrol 危险控制 Intensｉve ｓtudｙ广泛研究 Orgａniｚationaｌperｆｏrmａnce 企业绩效 Mｕtual trust 相互信任Sａfｅｔｙoffiｃer?安全官员 Ｓafeｔy commｉttee 安全委员会 Ｓhop-fｌｏｏr?生产区Unioniｚed company 集团公司 Seｎioｒitｙ?资历、工龄Local ｃuｌturｅ当地文化Absenｔeｅiｓm rａｔｅ?缺勤率Power reｌａtioｎｓ?权力关系 Stａtus review 状态审查Lower—ｌevel managemenｔ低层管理者 Business pｅrformance?组织绩效 Ｍｏst seniｏｒexｅcｕtiｖe 高级主管Superｖisory levｅl监督层 Ｓａfety pｒincipｌe?安全规则 Waｌl—boarｄ?公告栏 Imｐlement plan?执行计划 Ｈazarｄidenｔificａtion 危险辨识 Ｓａfeｔy pｅrfｏｒmance 安全性能 One comｐrｅｈensｉve definition fｏr an orgaｎｉzatｉonａl cｕｌture ｈas been presentｅdｂｙＳｃhein wｈo has said thｅorganｉｚatiｏnal culturｅiｓ“a patteｒn ｏf baｓic asｓumptionｓ–inveｎｔed, dｉｓcovere ｄ，or deveｌoｐｅｄby ａgiven gｒｏup as iｔlearns to cope with iｔs pｒｏbｌｅms of exｔｅrnal adaｐｔａｔiｏn and inｔernal integratioｎ– that h ａs ｗorked weｌl enouｇｈto be consiｄereｄｖａliｄand,tｈｅrｅｆore, to beｔａught to new memｂeｒｓas the corrｅｃt way to peｒcｅive, thin ｋ,and feel in rｅlatiｏn to ｔhosｅｐrobｌemｓ” 译文:Scheｉｎ给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式,这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的.由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可,因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员,让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The ｓafety cｕltｕｒe oｆan organization isｔhe proｄuct ｏf inｄividuａl aｎd ｇroｕp valueｓ,attitudes, ｐerceｐｔioｎs, ｃompｅtencｉｅs, aｎd pa ｔternsｏfｂｅhａviｏr that determine tｈe commitmｅｎt to, aｎd tｈe style and proficieｎcy oｆ,an organｉｚatioｎ’ｓｈｅａlｔｈanｄｓafeｔy manａgement.
通信与信息工程英语教程翻译
A business survives and thrives on information: information within the organization and information changed with suppliers, customers,and regulators. Moreover, the information needs to be consistent, accessible, and at the right location. We consider information in four forms-voice, data, image, and video-and the implications of distributed requirements. The term voice communications refers primarily to telephone related communications. By far the most common form of communication in any organization and for most personnel is direct telephone conversation. The telephone has been a basic tool of business for decades. Telephone communications has recently been enhanced by a variety of computer-based services, including voice mail and computerized telephone exchange systems. V oice mail provides the ability to send, forward , and reply to voice messages nonsimultaneously , and it has become a cost-efficient tool even for many midsize organizations. It provides saving on answering machines and services as well as more responsive service to customers and suppliers. Advances have also been made in computerized telephone exchange systems, including in-house digital private branch exchanges(PBX) and Centrex systems provided by the local telephone company. These new systems provide a host of features, including call forwarding, call waiting, least-cost routing of long-distance calls, and a variety of accounting and auditing features. The term data communications is sometimes used to refer to virtually any form of information transfer other than voice. It is sometimes convenient to limit this term to information in the form of text(such as reports, memos, and other documents) and numerical data(such as accounting files). The rapid changes in technology have created fresh challenges for management in making effective use of data communications. We will briefly outline the changes in technology in transmission, networks, and communications software that present the manager with new powerful business tools but also the necessity of making choices among complex alternatives. 一个企业生存和蓬勃发展的信息：在改变与供应商，客户和监管机构的组织和信息的信息。此外，对信息的需求是一致的，访问，并在合适的位置。我们认为，在四种形式的语音，数据，图像，视频和分布式需求的影响的信息。 长期的语音通信，主要是指以电话相关的通讯。迄今为止最常见的沟通形式中的任何组织和大多数工作人员是直接的电话交谈。电话已几十年来的基本的业务工具。电话通讯最近已加强各种以计算机为基础的服务，包括语音邮件和程控电话交换系统。语音信箱提供的能力，发送，转发和回复语音邮件nonsimultaneously，它已成为一个成本效益的工具，甚至许多中小型组织。提供节省答录机和服务，以及更快捷的服务客户和供应商。程控电话交换系统，包括内部数字专用分支交换机（PBX）和本地电话公司提供的Centrex系统也取得了进展。这些新系统提供主机的功能，包括呼叫转接，呼叫等待，长途电话的最低成本路由，各种会计和审计功能。 长期的数据通信有时被用来指几乎任何其他信息传输比语音形式。有时可以很方便限制这个术语在文本形式的信息（如报告，备忘录和其他文件）和数字数据（如会计档案）。已创建管理新的挑战，在有效地利用数据通信技术的迅速变化。我们将简要概述在传输技术的变化，网络和通信软件，经理提出新的强大的商业工具，但也使复杂的替代品之间的选择的必要性。