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从礼貌原则看高考英语书面表达题的参考答案

从礼貌原则看高考英语书面表达题的参考答案
从礼貌原则看高考英语书面表达题的参考答案

从礼貌原则看高考英语书面表达题的参考答案

摘要:笔者运用Leech的礼貌原则与Brown和Levinson的面子理论,分析2006年某市高考英语试卷中的书面表达题的参考答案,并与英国诺丁汉大学一位教师写的例文对比,以期促进教师和学生更好地认识英语语言中的礼貌原则。

关键词:英语作文;礼貌原则;面子理论

随着国际交往的不断扩大,跨文化交际越来越深入。近年来,省市英语高考自主命题的书面表达题开始涉及到跨文化交际的内容,要求学生不仅能够运用复杂结构和较高级词汇而且行文连贯流畅,还要能注意语言的得体性。2006年某市英语高考书面表达是一则颇能代表跨文化交际活动的语篇。如何在语言交际活动中维护双方友好的社会关系成为中学英语教学中的新内容。

礼貌可以被看成是文化中一个固定的概念,也是在交际中被用来维护面子的手段(Yule, 2000)。爱面子不是中国人特有的,它具有普遍性。几十年来,语用学家分析各种言语行为(speech acts),试图建立起具有普遍意义的礼貌原则或者面子理论。虽然他们的理论受到了各种赞赏或批评,然而英国语言学家Leech(1983)以及Brown和Levinson(1987)关于礼貌或面子的理论对我们运用英语进行跨文化交际还是很有指导意义的。

本文运用语用学中礼貌原则和面子理论分析某市高考书面表达题的参考答案,以期促进教师和学生更好地认识英语语言中的礼貌原则。

一、礼貌原则和面子理论

Grice提出了合作原则,用来阐释语义(sense)与语力(force)之间的关系。Leech认为:合作原则无法说清楚现实生活中人们为何在言语表达时要采用间接方式,为什么要故意违背合作原则。于是他在1983年提出了礼貌原则,意在改进合作原则。礼貌原则由六条准则(maxim)组成,即:1)得体准则(Tact Maxim),2)宽宏准则(Generosity Maxim),3)赞誉准则(Approbation Maxim),4)谦虚准则(Modesty Maxim),5)一致准则(Agreement Maxim),6)同情准则(Sympathy Maxim)。

在这六条准则中,最根本的一条是得体准则。为了衡量礼貌程度,Leech还设置了四个语用尺度:1)损益尺度,用于测定言语行为对谁有利、对谁不利,对听话者越有利就越有礼貌;2)选择尺度,用于衡量一个言语行为给听话人多大的选择权,选择权越大越礼貌;3)间接尺度,用于测定一个言语行为达到目标含义的间接程度,越间接越礼貌;4)社会距离尺度,用于确定人与人之间的社会角色关系。话语的礼貌程度要根据交际双方的社会地位、年龄、亲疏程度等来确定。人际关系越疏远,说话越需要讲礼貌;关系越密切,越不需要客套。

Brown 和 Levinson(1987)借用Goffman的面子概念提出了“面子理论”,以解释社会交往中具有正常交际能力的典型人的礼貌行为现象。他们认为典型人所具有的“面子”即是每一个社会成员意欲为自己挣得的那种在公众中的“个人形象”,并且将“面子”分为消极面子(negative face)和积极面子(positive face)两种。消极面子是自主的自由,指不希望别人强加于自己,自己不因迁就别人或受到别人的干涉、阻碍而使自己丢失面子。积极面子是指希望得到别人的认同、喜欢和与别人立场相同。Brown 和Levinson(1987)认为,有些类型的言语行为本质上和交际者的面子相悖,它们对积极面子和消极面子都会产生威胁,并且对说话人和听话人的面子都可能造成威胁,这些言语行为被称为“面子威胁行为(Face Threatening Acts)”。礼貌语言的功能就是尽量维护面子,减少威胁程度。于是我们的言行就需要补救策略,它们依次是:1)公开面子威胁行为策略;2)积极礼貌策略;3)消极礼貌策略;4)非公开面子威胁行为策略;5)不实施面子威胁行为策略。在面子理论中决定说话人采用何种策略的三个主要因素是权势、距离和要求度。

从整体来看, 国外的礼貌研究大多以 Brown & Levinson(1987)的面子理论为框架, 而国内的研究则大多以Leech(1983)的礼貌原则为框架。笔者认为,Leech的礼貌原则对(不)礼

貌言语现象具有较强的解释力,但是他的六条准则总体上是建立在说话人的损和听话人的益的基础上,一味要求说话人考虑听话人的益,有失偏颇。Brown & Levinson的面子理论以权势、距离和言语的要求度为基本点,既考虑到如何针对听话人礼貌得体用语,又能维护说话人自身的面子,正如 Scollon和Scollon(2000)所述,任何交际对面子都有威胁,对自己的面子有威胁同时对他人的面子也有威胁。在这一点上面子理论要比Leech的框架考虑得周全。面子理论把礼貌策略分为五种,其中包括非言语行为如何用来维护友好的社会关系,这也是Leech的礼貌原则没能包括的。

二、高考英语书面表达题参考答案的语用分析

(一)书面表达题的要求和参考答案

下面是某市高考书面表达题的写作内容和要求以及参考答案。

假设你是李华,在出国交流学习期间,到当地一家电影院看了一场精彩的电影,但在观看过程中发现了一些问题。请你根据下列提示用英语给影院经理写一封信。

(1)因广告过多,影片放映晚点;(2)影片播放音量过大;(3)安全出口标识不明,存在安全隐患;(4)适当结尾。

Dear Manager,

I’m an exchange student from China. Yesterday, I went to your cinema to see a film.The film was good, but I did not enjoy it because there were some problems in the cinema.

First, the film was delayed as there were so many advertisements at the beginning. It was rather annoying. Second, the sound of the film was so loud that I could hardly bear it.Third, the EXIT signs could not be seen clearly, which presented potential safety hazards.And if something terrible should happen, it would be difficult for people to get out quickly.

As a visitor to your city, I’m disappointed with my experience in your cinema.I’m writing this letter in the hope that you can consider these problems and make some improvements.

Yours faithfully,

Li Hua

(二)对参考答案的语用分析

这是典型的跨文化交际语篇。李华是中国的出国交流学生,对方是英语国家的电影院经理,他们俩分别代表着不同的文化。两人素昧平生,社会距离(distance)达到最大值(+D);从权势上看收信人(为方便分析,下称“听话人”)是经理,写信者(下称“说话人”)是出国交流学生,存在权势的差异(+P);从言语行为来看,该语篇主要由两个言语行为组成,批评和要求(改正问题)。批评即为对缺点错误提出意见。Leech提出将言外行为(即通过“说话”这一动作所实施的一种行为)分成四大类:竞争类、和谐类、合作类和冲突类。他将冲突类的言语行为定义为“言外功能与社会功能互相冲突的那些言语行为”。依据Leech的定义,我们可以将批评言语行为归入此类。Leech认为这一类言外行为在本质上是不礼貌的。这一观点不免流于绝对化,但是从中我们可以看出批评这一言语行为具有很强的面子威胁性。

对照Leech的礼貌原则,参考答案采用了部分赞誉准则,称赞电影精彩;并采用了过去时(包括虚拟语气),让听话人感觉问题是过去的;“in the hope that you can consider these problems and make some improvements”尚能体现言语行为的一定的间接性。但是,整篇文章尚有很多值得斟酌之处,文笔过分直截了当,不符合英语国家的交际习惯。

下面根据Leech的礼貌原则分析参考答案的失误之处。

1.得体准则和宽宏准则的遵守情况

得体准则要求说话人最小限度地使别人受损,最大限度地使别人得益。得体礼貌程度主要体现在语言的间接性和听话人对言语行为的选择权。参考答案似乎过于强调自我的益,突出了个人的需要。具体体现在“I didn’t enjoy it”、“I could hardly bear it”、“I am disappointed with my experie nce in the cinema”。 Scollon和Scollon(2000)的消极礼貌策略第六条,也要求使听话人和说话人与话语脱离关系。

交际双方素昧平生从未谋面,关系疏远,而且权势上不均等,这些都要求说话人尽可能的礼貌,并尽可能多给听话人以选择权。“I’m writing this letter in the hope that you can consider these problems and make some improvements.”下划线部分尽管不是使用要求度(imposition)最大的祈使句,但实质上要求度仍然相当大,听话人似乎非接受他的要求不可。

2.赞誉准则和谦虚准则的遵守情况

这两条准则要求“最小限度地贬低别人,最大限度地赞誉别人”和“最小限度地赞誉自己,最大限度地贬低自己”。可是我们从参考答案中发现很多处非常直截了当的批评。例如:“It was rather annoying”,“problems”,“which presented potential safety hazards”,“something terrible”。在中国,批评者通常认为自己的出发点是好的,因此,有时不惜夸大问题的严重性,但这种举动却不被看成是不礼貌。而在英语国家,说话人批评或者表达不同观点的时候,总是尽量缓和语气,不惜转弯抹角,尽可能地使用间接性较大的表达方式,甚至暗示。

3.一致准则和同情准则的遵守情况

这两条准则要求“使对话双方的分歧减至最小限度,使对话双方的一致增至最大限度”和“使对话双方的反感减至最小限度,使对话双方的同情增至最大限度”。遗憾的是,整个参考答案中没有采取补救策略使听话人的反感降低到最小程度,主要原因是作者所使用的表达间接性不够大。

(三)本族语者的作品赏析

下面我们再来看看英国诺丁汉大学英语系一位教师所写的例文:

Dear Sir or Madam,

I’m an exchange student from China. Yesterday I went to your cinema to see a film.The film was great, but I would just like to draw your attention to one or two things that rather spoiled my visit.

For one thing, I couldn’t help feeling that there were too many commercials.I know they are an important source of revenue, but, after all, we went to the cinema to enjoy the film.

I also wonder whether it is possible to turn down the sound a little so that people like me can concentrate on the story.The sound level was actually quite deafening.

I also felt that the EXIT signs could not be seen clearly, and I am sure that you will agree that that is something that needs to be put right immediately, in case of an emergency.

With best wishes.

Yours faithfully,

Li Hua

显然,这位教师(以下称作者)的例文要比参考答案更加得体。下面我们运用面子理论并结合Leech的礼貌原则进行分析。

作者用great称赞电影精彩,而不是参考答案中的good。Great是日常英语中常见的赞扬之词,比good语气强烈,说明了英语本族语者“最大限度地赞誉别人”。

在批评问题时,作者没有直接说problems,而是委婉地要求draw your attention to one or two things that rather spoiled my visit。句子中just表明那只是一个小小的要求。

就广告过多的问题,他说“I couldn’t help feeling that there were too many commercials.”“couldn’t help feeling”让人觉得接下来的观点或意见不是说话人故意要提的。作者还采用了一致准则和同情准则,说明广告是重要的财源,设身处地考虑对方的需要,拉近了交际双方的距离,也体现了面子理论中的积极礼貌。“...after all, we went to the cinema to enjoy the film”这句话间接表达了我们到电影院的目的不是看广告片的,同时“we”的使用体现了Scollon和Scollon(2000)积极礼貌策略中的第三条,即声称与听话人为同一群体的成员关系(in-group membership)。而影片放映晚点并没有表达出来。这里他采用了Brown和Levinson的“不实施面子威胁行为策略”、“最小限度地贬低别人”。

在影片播放音量过大的问题上,作者使用了间接言语表达方式,“I wonder whether it is possible to turn down the sound a little”维护了听话人的消极面子。我们知道,在口头交际中,turn down the sound是最直接的表达。Turn down the sound a little,在语气上稍有缓和。Is it possible to turn down the sound a little?要比前一句间接多了。I wonder whether it is possible to turn down the sound a little又比前者间接。表达方式越间接,听话人越有选择度(the degree of optionality),礼貌程度就越大。但是后面他又巧妙地维护了自我的消极面子,后半句people like me can concentrate on the story通过强调people的利益间接地维护自身的利益。当然,作者并不是一味地去考虑对方。作者同时也不亢不卑地维护自身消极面子的需要。作者顺势也批评道:The sound level was actually quite deafening.

在“安全出口标识不明”问题上,作者并没有提到“安全隐患”,而是采用了“不实施面子威胁行为策略”,从而“最小限度地贬低别人”。最后,“I am sure that you will agree”是一种积极礼貌策略,即“声称具有相同的观点”。句中emergency是暗示(hint),属于“非公开面子威胁行为策略”。参考答案中If something terrible should happen, it would be difficult for people to get out quickly这句话是公开策略,对听话人的面子具有很大的威胁性。

三、结语

中学英语教学不能仅局限于语言知识和语言技能的传授。教师可以通过解释、分析和对比同一言语功能不同表达方式之间在礼貌程度上的差异,也可以提供一些范例供学生欣赏日常交际中语言的得体性。在设计交际性课堂活动时,教师要有意识地设计权势、地位各不相同的角色,向学生提供模拟不同的人在不同的场合采用不同的表达形式的机会。在课堂模拟交际活动中,教师应该教会学生注意并分析交际双方的社会地位、亲疏程度,选择适当的语言表达形式。在对口、笔头表达的评估中,教师应该走出结构主义的框框,不能把华丽的辞藻和复杂的结构当作评价学生语言能力的唯一标准,还要注意到语言的得体性。

参考文献:

Brown,P. &S. Levinson.1987.Politeness:Some Universals in Language Usage[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Leech, N. G. 1983.Principles of Pragmatics[M]. London: Longman.

Scollon, R.& S.W.Scollon.2000.跨文化交际:语篇分析法[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.

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