简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义

1.语言学Linguistics

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2.普通语言学General Linguistics

The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.

3.语言language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features

It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性

Productivity多产性

Duality双重性

Displacement移位性

Cultural transmission文化传递

⑴arbitrariness

There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it

makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity

Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.

⑶Duality

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.

⑷Displacement

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

⑸Cultural transmission

Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.

5.语言能力Competence

Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.

6.语言运用performance

Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics

The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of

language over a period of time.

8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics

The study of a given language at a given time.

9.语言langue

The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.

10.言语parole

The realization of langue in actual use.

11.规定性Prescriptive

It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.

12.描述性Descriptive

A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.

二、知识点

is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.

语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

2.几种观点和现象的提出者：

⑴瑞士语言学家 Saussure Saussure:Langue和parole的区别

⑵ linguist 美国语言学家

in1950针对Saussur e’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家

Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.

Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.

Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.

⑷ Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett

提出了语言的识别特征design features

word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.

Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。

order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.

is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题

drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。

三、问答题

are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?

Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.

Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.

Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.

do we say language is arbitrary?

Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.

The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.

A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.

3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.

传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。

modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why

Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.

现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?

Speech enjoys for the following reasons:

⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.

⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.

⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s ?

Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract

language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study

Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

distinction between langue and parole?

⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.

1/ What is linguistics?

什么是语言学？

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.

2/ The scope of linguistics

语言学的研究范畴

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)

The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）

The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）

The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. （形态学）

The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is

called syntax（句法学）

The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）

The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）

The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）

The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.

Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）

3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional

grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.

Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时

The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.

Langue and parole 语言和言语

The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study

of linguistics.

Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用

Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.

He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.

Chapter Two Phonology

一、定义

1.宽式音标Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

2.窄式音标Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.

4.浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

5.元音Vowel

The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close

together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.

6.辅音Consonants

The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.

7.音位Phoneme

The basic unit in pho nology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

8.音位变体Allophones

Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

9.音素phone

A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.

10.最小对立对Minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.

12.互补分布complementary distribution P35

Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language

The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.

在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.

they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]

二、知识点

resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.

2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.

组成

⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed

⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学

⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

/Organs of Speech

Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔

Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here

Nasal …–鼻腔

tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.

between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].

consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]

9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.

rules例子

If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:

⑴the firs t phoneme must be /s/

⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/

⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w

has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise

tone; Rise-fall tone

三、问答题

are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?

Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.

Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.

发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。

声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。 are the English consonants classified?

By place of articulation and By manner of articulation

do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?

语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?

Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.

Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.

A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.

’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?

Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.

Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?

Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.

除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合.

By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.

通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?

Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.

Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序规则Sequential rules

Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则Deletion rule

It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.

Chapter Three Morphology

一、定义

1.词素Morpheme

The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.

2.自由词素Free Morpheme

Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.

3.黏着词素Bound morphemes

Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used

independently.

4.词根Root

Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

5.词缀Affix

The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.

6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes

The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.

7.派生词缀Derivational affixes

The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.

8.词干Stem

A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.

a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

9.形态学规则Morphological rules

They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.

10.前缀Prefix

Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be-‘ and ‘en(m)-‘

11.后缀Suffix

Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the

original word and in many cases change its part of speech. using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.

二、知识点

Inflectional morphology

Derivational morphology

Free morphemes

Morphemes Root

Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes

Affixes Prefix

Derivational affixes

words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix

features:

⑴orthographically, a compound can be wri tten as one word, two separate

words with or without a hyphen in between.

⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the

last element.

⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable

from the meanings of all its component

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/175869843.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/175869843.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/175869843.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

英语语言学复习总结

1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality

英语语言学讲解

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