机床加工外文翻译参考文献

机床加工外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)

基本加工工序和切削技术

基本加工的操作

机床是从早期的埃及人的脚踏动力车和约翰·威尔金森的镗床发展而来的。它们为工件和刀具提供刚性支撑并可以精确控制它们的相对位置和相对速度。基本上讲，金属切削是指一个磨尖的锲形工具从有韧性的工件表面上去除一条很窄的金属。切屑是被废弃的产品，与其它工件相比切屑较短，但对于未切削部分的厚度有一定的增加。工件表面的几何形状取决于刀具的形状以及加工操作过程中刀具的路径。

大多数加工工序产生不同几何形状的零件。如果一个粗糙的工件在中心轴上转动并且刀具平行于旋转中心切入工件表面，一个旋转表面就产生了，这种操作称为车削。如果一个空心的管子以同样的方式在内表面加工，这种操作称为镗孔。当均匀地改变直径时便产生了一个圆锥形的外表面，这称为锥度车削。如果刀具接触点以改变半径的方式运动，那么一个外轮廓像球的工件便产生了；或者如果工件足够的短并且支撑是十分刚硬的，那么成型刀具相对于旋转轴正常进给的一个外表面便可产生，短锥形或圆柱形的表面也可形成。

平坦的表面是经常需要的，它们可以由刀具接触点相对于旋转轴的径向车削产生。在刨削时对于较大的工件更容易将刀具固定并将工件置于刀具下面。刀具可以往复地进给。成形面可以通过成型刀具加工产生。

多刃刀具也能使用。使用双刃槽钻钻深度是钻孔直径5-10倍的孔。不管是钻头旋转还是工件旋转，切削刃与工件之间的相对运动是一个重要因数。在铣削时一个带有许多切削刃的旋转刀具与工件接触，工件相对刀具慢慢运动。平的或成形面根据刀具的几何形状和进给方式可能产生。可以产生横向或纵向轴旋转并且可以在任何三个坐标方向上进给。

基本机床

机床通过从塑性材料上去除屑片来产生出具有特别几何形状和精确尺寸的零件。后者是废弃物，是由塑性材料如钢的长而不断的带状物变化而来，从处理的角度来看，那是没有用处的。很容易处理不好由铸铁产生的破裂的屑片。机床执行五种基本的去除金属的过程：车削，刨削，钻孔，铣削。所有其他的去除金属的过程都是由这五个基本程序修改而来的，举例来说，镗孔是内部车削；铰孔，攻丝和扩孔是进一步加工钻过的孔；齿轮加工是基于铣削操作的。抛光和打磨是磨削和去除磨料工序的变形。因此，只有四种基本类型的机床，使用特别可控制几何形状的切削工具1.车床，2.钻床，3.铣床，4.磨床。磨削过程形成了屑片，但磨粒的几何形状是不可控制的。

通过各种加工工序去除材料的数量和速度是巨大的，正如在大型车削加工，或者是极小的如研磨和超精密加工中只有面的高点被除掉。一台机床履行三大职能：1.它支撑工件或夹具和刀具2.它为工件和刀具提供相对运动3.在每一种情况下提供一系列的进给量和一般可达4-32种的速度选择。

加工速度和进给

速度，进给量和切削深度是经济加工的三大变量。其他的量数是攻丝和刀具材料，冷却剂和刀具的几何形状，去除金属的速度和所需要的功率依赖于这些变量。

切削深度，进给量和切削速度是任何一个金属加工工序中必须建立的机械参量。它们都影响去除金属的力，功率和速度。切削速度可以定义为在旋转一周时

速度记录面相对任何瞬间呈辐射状扩散的针，或是两个相邻沟槽的距离。切削深度是进入的深度和沟槽的深度。

在车床中心的车削

在机动车床上完成的基本操作已被介绍了。那些用单点刀具在外表面的操作称为车削。除了钻孔，铰孔，研磨内部表面的操作也是由单点刀具完成的。

所有的加工工序包括车削，镗孔可以被归类为粗加工，精加工或半精加工。精加工是尽可能快而有效的去除大量材料，而工件上留下的一小部分材料用于精加工。精加工为

工件获得最后尺寸，形状和表面精度。有时，半精加工为精加工留下预定的一定量的材料，它是先于精加工的。

一般来说，较长的工件同时被一个或两个车床中心支撑。锥形孔，所谓的中心孔，两端被钻的工件适于车床中心-通常沿着圆柱形工件的轴线。工件接近为架的那端通常由尾架中心支撑，在靠近主轴承的那端由主轴承中心支撑或由爪盘夹紧。这种方法可以牢固的加紧工件并且能顺利地将力传给工件；由卡盘对工件提供的辅助支撑减少切削时发生的颤振趋势，如果能小心准确地采用卡盘支撑工件的方法，则可以得到精确的结果。

在两个中心之间支撑工件可以得到非常精确的结果。工件的一端已被加工，那么工件便可车削了。在车床上加工另一端，中心孔充当精确定位面和承载工件重量和抵制切削力的支撑面。当工件由于任何一原因从车床上移除后，中心孔将准确地使工件回到这个车床上或另一个车床上或一个圆柱磨床上。工件不允许被卡盘和车床中心夹在主轴承上。然而首先想到的是一个快速调整卡盘上工件的方法，但这是不允许的因为在由卡盘夹持的同时也由车床中心支撑是不可能的。由车床中心提供的调整将不能持续并且爪盘的压力会损坏中心孔和车床中心，甚至是车床主轴。浮动的爪盘为上述陈述提供了一个例外，它几乎完全使用在高生产工作上，这些卡盘是真正的工作驱动者并且不为同样的目的如普通的三爪，四爪卡盘使用。

而大直径的工件有时装在两个中心，它们最好有由面板夹持在主轴承尾部来顺利得到能量转换；许多车床夹头并不能足量的转换能量，虽然可以作为特殊的能量转换。

机械加工介绍

作为产生形状的一种方法，机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。机械加工过程是一个产生形状的过程，在这过程中，驱动装置使工件上的一些材料以切屑的形式被去除。尽管在某些场合，工件无支承情况下，使用移动式装备来实现加工，但大多数的机械加工是通过既支承工件又支承刀具的装备来完成。

小批量，低成本。机械加工在制造业上有两个应用。是铸造，锻造和压力工作，产生每一个特殊形状，甚至一个零件，几乎总有较高的模具成本。焊接的形状很大程度上取决于原材料。通过利用总成本高但没有特殊模具的设备，加工是有可能的；从几乎任何形式的原材料开始，只要外部尺寸足够大，由任意材料设计形状。因此加工是首选的方法，当生产一个或几个零件甚至在大批量生产时，零件的设计在逻辑上导致铸造，锻造或冲压制品。高精度，表面精度。机械加工的第二个应用是基于可能的高精度和表面精度的。如果在其他工序中大批量生产，很多低量零件会产生出低的但可接受的公差。另一方面，许多零件由一些大变形过程产生一般的形状，并且只在具有很高精度的选定面加工。举例来说，内线流程是很少产生任何方式以外的其他机械加工并且紧接着压力操作后零件上的小洞可能被加工。

主要的切削参数

在切削时基本工具工作的关系充分描述的方法有4个因素：刀具几何形状，切削速度和切削深度。刀具必须由适当的材料做成；它必须有一定的强度，粗糙度，硬度和抗疲劳度。刀具几何形状由面和角度描述，对每一种切削操作都是正确的。切削速度是指切削刃通过工作面的速度，它已每分钟通过的英尺数表示。对于加工效率，切削速度相对于特殊工作组合必须具有适当规模。一般来讲，工件越硬，速度越小。进给是刀具进入工件的速率。当工件或刀具旋转时，进给量的单位是英寸每转。当刀具或工件往复移动时，进给量的单位是英寸没次，总的来说，在其他相似情况下进给量与切削速度成反比。切削速度用英寸表示，是刀具进入工件的距离表示的，它是指车削时屑片的宽度或是直线切削时屑片的厚度。粗加工时切削深度比精加工的切削深度大。

切削参数的改变对切削温度的影响

在金属切削作业中热量产生于主要和第二变形区而这些结果导致了复杂温度遍布于刀具，工件和屑片。一个典型的等温先如图所示，它可以看出正如预测的，当工件材料经历主要变形，被减切时，有一个非常大温度梯度遍布于屑片的整个宽度。当第二变形区的屑片还有一小段距离就达到了最大温度。

因为几乎所有的工作都以金属切削转化为热量而完成，可以预测去除每一单位体积的金属所增加的能量消耗将会提高切削温度。因此在所有其他参数不变，前角变大时，将减少去除每单位体积金属的能量和切削温度。当考虑到增加未形成屑片的厚度和速度，情况就更复杂了。增加切削厚度往往会大大影响热量传给工件，刀具的多少，而且会使屑片停留在一个固定数额，同时切削温度的变化也会很小，可是增加切削速度会减少传递给工件的热量，同时这将增大屑片主要变形的温升。此外，第二变形区是比较小的，在这个变形区会提高温度。切削参数的其他变化几乎不影响去除每单位体积的能量消耗和切削温度。因此已经表明，即使是切削温度的小规模变化对刀具磨损率也有重大影响，从切削数据来估计切削温度是恰当的。检测高速钢工具最直接最准确的方法，特伦特给出了高速钢工具温度分布的详细资料。该技术是基于高速钢刀具的数据检测并与对热历史的微观变化有关。

特伦特已经描述了切削温度的测量和加工大范围工件时高速钢工具的温度分布。使用扫描电子显微镜来研究精细尺度微观结构变化，这项技术已得到了进一步发展。这项技术也用于研究高速钢单点车刀和麻花钻的温度分布，

刀具磨损

脆性断裂已经得到了处理，刀具磨损基本上有三个类型。后刀面磨损，边界磨损和前刀面磨损。刀面磨损发生在主切削刃和次切削刃。主切削刃负责去除大量金属，这增加了切削力和温度，如果任其发展会导致刀具和工件的振动，这就再不能高效率地切削了。次切削刃决定工件尺寸和表面精度，后刀面的磨损会导致大量产品出现较差的表面精度。根据实际切削条件，刀具不可用的主要原因在于主刀面先于次刀面的磨损非常大，这导致了一个不可接受部分的产生。

因为刀具的应力分布，刚开始滑动时，滑动区域的摩擦力在屑片和面之间达到最大，最后摩擦力便为零。因此磨料磨损发生在这个区域，在屑片与相离处更多的磨损发生在与该区域相邻处，这比相邻于这点的更多。

这导致了刀具面的局部点蚀与这面有一定距离，这面通常有一部分是圆弧形的。在许多方面并基于实际切削条件，边界磨损相比后刀面是一个较不严重的磨损，因此刀面磨损是一种较常见磨钝标准。然后，由于各样作者表明，伴随着切削速度的增加面温度的增加量多于刀面的增加量，而由于温度变化严重影响任一类型的磨损率，边界磨损通常发生在较高切削速度的情况下。

刀具与未切削面相接触的地方，主刀面磨损的尾部的磨损比沿着剩余磨损面的地方更明显。这是因为局部影响如未切削面是由先前的切削，氧化规模，局部高温所形成的加工硬化而造成的。这个局部磨损一般与边界磨损有关，有时还很严重。虽然出现凹口不会严重影响刀具的切削性能，凹口是往往比较深，如果继续切削刀具很可能断裂。

如果任何形式的渐进磨损让其戏剧性的继续存在，刀具将面临灾难性的故障，如刀具再不能切割，在好的情况下，工件报废，最坏时，机械工具可能造成损坏。对于硬质合金刀具和各类型的磨损，在出现灾难性故障之前达到最长使用使用寿命的极限。但对于高速钢切削工具的磨损是不均匀的，目前已发现当磨损继续并甚至出现灾难性故障时，便可得到最有意义的和可以复制的结果，当然在实践中，切削时间远远少于故障时间。发生灾难性故障时会出现几个现象，最常见的是切削力突然增加，工件出现亮环，噪音显著增大。

表面精整加工机理

有五个基本机制对于已加工产品有影响：（1）切削过程的基本几何形状，单点车削刀具将轴向前进一个恒定距离，由此产生的面将在它上面，刀具垂直方向进给运动时，一连串的尖点形成切削刀具的基本形状。（2）切削加工的效率。已经提到不稳定刀瘤将产生含有硬化刀瘤片段的面。这个片段使表面光洁度降低。也能证明在不利切削条件下引用大进给，小前角和低切削速度，除此以外生产条件也会导致不稳积屑瘤产品，切削过程变得不稳定而不是在剪切带连续切削，发生破碎，出现不均匀的间断屑片，表面也不够光滑。当加工韧性材料时这种情况尤其明显。（3）机床的稳定。根据某些组合的切削条件，工件尺寸，夹紧的方法和相对机床结构的刚度，不稳定性是刀具造成的颤动。在一定条件下，这种颤动将达到并保持一定的振幅，而根据其它条件的振动也会产生，除非切割阻止了相当大的损坏不然切削刀具和工件都可能发生颤动。这个现象称为颤振，

而轴向车削的特点是工件上有长螺旋带，暂加工面上有短节距起伏。（4）去除切屑的有效性。在间断切屑生产加工中，如脆性材料的铣削和车削，预计无论是由于重力还是切削液，屑片都将离开切削区，任何情况下也不会影响切削面。连续屑片是显而易见的，如果不采取措施来控制切屑，就有可能会影响切削面并留下痕迹。无可避免地，这标志着只能期待。（5）切削刀具的有效后角。对于有某一几何形状的小型切削刃和后角，很有可能在主切削刃切削，在次切削刃打磨。这会产生好的表面精度，但当然这一个严格地金属成形的组合，是不能被推荐为实际的切削方法。但是，由于这些情况偶有发生，刀具磨损会导致表面特性的变化。

极限与公差

机械零件被制造因此它们是可互换的。换句话说，每一种机械零件或装置被制成一定的大小和形状来适用于其它型号的机器。为了使零件具有互换性，每一个零件都做成一个尺寸来用正确的方法与对应的零件相配。这不仅不可能，而且是许多零件都做成一个尺寸是不切实际的。这是因为机器不是完美的，而工具会磨损。相对于正确尺寸的一点偏差通常是允许的。这个偏差的大小依赖于被制零件的种类，比如一个零件可能是6英寸，上下偏差是0003英寸（三千分之一）。因此这个偏差可以是5997英寸到6003英寸之间并仍能保持正确尺寸。这就是偏差。上偏差和下偏差之差即是公差。

公差是零件尺寸的最大变化量，基本尺寸是允许变动量和公差范围而衍生的尺寸限制。有时偏差只允许一个方向的变动，它允许公差在孔或轴上变化而不会严重影响配合。当公差在两个方向上都变化时，称为完全偏差（正和负）。完全偏差是分开的，并且在基本尺寸的每一边都会有。而极限尺寸只有最大尺寸和最小尺寸。因此，公差是这两个尺寸之差。

表面精度和尺寸控制

产品已经完成了应有的形状和大小，常常需要某种类型的表面精度是它们能够履行好自己的职能。在某些情况下为了抵抗划破和擦破，提高表面材料的物理性能是必须的。在许多制造工艺中，产品表面留下污垢，屑片，油脂或其它有害物质。由不同材料组成的混合物，不同方式加工的同种材料，可能需要一些特殊的面处理以提供均匀的外观。

表面抛光处理有时可能成为一个中间处理程序。举例来说，先于各种电镀工艺，清洁和抛光通常是必不可少的。一些清洗程序也用来改善配合零件的表面光滑度，也为了去除毛边，这些在以后使用中是有害的。表面抛光处理的另一个重要原因是在各种各样的环境中的防腐保护。保护程序的类型主要取决于预期暴露，并充分考虑到材料保护和经济因数。

为了满足上述目的，因此必须使用表面抛光的主要方法，表面力学的化学变化影响工作面的性能，用各种方法清洗，保护涂料和有机金属的应用。

在早期的工程中，尽量接近的将配合零件加工到所需尺寸，把配合零件加工到相似尺寸然后完成加工，并不断地将其它零件与它相配，直到得到理想的关系。如果在加工时不方便将一个零件另一个零件相配，则最后的工作是由钳工坐在板凳上，刮削配合零件直到理想的配合，因此作为一名钳工字面意为J，显而易见，两个零件仍在一起而M不得不更换，必须再一次去相配合。在这些日子里，我们期望能为坏零件购买一个替代品，而它的功能正常也不需要刮削和其它修改工序。

当一个零件能被用来替换另一个同尺寸和同材料规格的零件，这时我们称之为这些零件能互换。互换系统通常可以降低生产成本，为了一个昂贵的操作是没有必要的，这有益于客户在需要时更换磨料零件。

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装配设备的传统同步夹子有更多的零件与中心线相对，以确保当电弧从传送带回升时能在一个众所周知的地方。然而，在某些应用中，迫使零件与中心线对准，可能会损坏零件和设备。当零件很小并有一些碰撞可导致刮擦，当它的位置被机床主轴或丝杠固定，或公差是很小时，最好使夹子配合零件的位置而不是倒过来。对于这些任务Tantra公司Reliably已经创造了GPN不同步系列，它与夹持兼容。因为力和夹子的同步系统是独立的，同步系统可以被一个精密的防滑系统取而带之而不影响夹持力。夹子尺寸范围从51b夹持力和0.2英寸冲程到40Gb 夹持力和6英寸冲程。夹子产品的特点是批量的规模越来越小并且提供更多元的产品。作为最后一步生产步骤，装配在批量大小和产品设计时特别容易变化。以前在这种情况下，迫使许多企业把更多的精力投入到广泛合理化和自动化装配

上。虽然在以灵活处理系统如工业机器人的背景下，弹性夹具的发展在快速下降，但尝试着增加弹性夹具会成为可能。

夹具是必需的产品投资，这一事实激化了使夹具更灵活地在经济上的必要性。夹具可以根据它们的灵活性分为单一夹具，组合夹具，模块化夹具，高灵活夹具。灵活夹具的特点是对不同工件的高度适应性，较少的变换时间和较低的价格。

在生产任务中工件在夹具里是固定的，固定一个工件有几个必要步骤。第一步要确定工件在夹具上的位置，考虑未加工面和工作特点。在此之后，固定面必须被选定。工件在确定的位置被固定在固定面上，并添加必要的力和力矩，保证获得必要的工作特点。最后，必要的调动位置或组合夹具因素都要考虑，调整或组装，使工件牢牢地固定在夹具上。通过这样一个程序，工序和工序卡片，夹具的装配可自动进行。结构造型任务就是要产生若干稳定平面的组合，这样在这些平面上的各夹紧力将使工件和夹具稳定。按惯例，这个任务可用人-机对话即几乎完全自动化的方式来完成。以人-机对话即以自动化方式确定夹具结构造型的优点是可有组织有规划进行夹具设计，减少所需的设计人员，缩短研究周期和能更好地配置工作条件。简言之，可成功地达到显著提高夹具生产效率和经济效益。

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Most machining operations produce parts of differing geometry. If a rough cylindrical pieceworker revolves about a central axis and the tool penetrates beneath its surface and travels parallel to the center of rotation, a surface of revolution is produced, and the operation is called turning. If a hollow tube is machined on the inside in a similar manner, the operation is called boring. Producing an external conical surface uniformly varying diameter is called taper turning, if the tool point travels in a path of varying radius, a contoured surface like that of a bowling pin can be produced; or, if the piece is short enough and the support is sufficiently rigid, a contoured surface could be produced by feeding a shaped tool normal to the axis of rotation. Short tapered or cylindrical surfaces could also be contour formed.

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Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2006) 29: 178–183 DOI 10.1007/s00170-004-2493-9
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Ferda C. C ? etinkaya
Unit sized transfer batch scheduling in an automated two-machine ?ow-line cell with one transport agent
Received: 26 July 2004 / Accepted: 22 November 2004 / Published online: 16 November 2005 ? Springer-Verlag London Limited 2005 Abstract The process of splitting a job lot comprised of several identical units into transfer batches (some portion of the lot), and permitting the transfer of processed transfer batches to downstream machines, allows the operations of a job lot to be overlapped. The essence of this idea is to increase the movement of work in the manufacturing environment. In this paper, the scheduling of multiple job lots with unit sized transfer batches is studied for a two-machine ?ow-line cell in which a single transport agent picks a completed unit from the ?rst machine, delivers it to the second machine, and returns to the ?rst machine. A completed unit on the ?rst machine blocks the machine if the transport agent is in transit. We examine this problem for both unit dependent and independent setups on each machine, and propose an optimal solution procedure similar to Johnson’s rule for solving the basic two-machine ?owshop scheduling problem. Keywords Automated guided vehicle · Lot streaming · Scheduling · Sequencing · Transfer batches entire lot to ?nish its processing on the current machine, while downstream machines may be idle. It should be obvious that processing the entire lot as a single object can lead to large workin-process inventories between the machines, and to an increase in the maximum completion time (makespan), which is the total elapsed time to complete the processing of all job lots. However, the splitting of an entire lot into transfer batches to be moved to downstream machines permits the overlapping of different operations on the same product while work proceeds, to complete the lot on the upstream machine. There are many ways to split a lot: transfer batches may be equal or unequal, with the number of splits ranging from one to the number of units in the job lot. For instance, consider a job lot consisting of 100 identical items to be processed in a three-stage manufacturing environment in which the ?ow of its operations is unidirectional from stage 1 through stage 3. Assume that the unit processing time at stages 1, 2, and 3 are 1, 3, 2 min, respectively. If we do not allow transfer batches, the throughput time is (100)(1+3+2) = 600 min (see Fig. 1a). However, if we create two equal sized transfer batches through all stages, the throughput time decreases to 450 min, a reduction of 25% (see Fig. 1b). It is clear that the throughput time decreases as the number of transfer batches increases. Flowshop problems have been studied extensively and reported in the literature without explicitly considering transfer batches. Johnson [1], in his pioneering work, proposed a polynomial time algorithm for determining the optimal makespan when several jobs are processed on a two-machine (two-stage) ?owshop with unlimited buffer. With three or more machines, the problem has been proven to be NP-hard (Garey et al. [2]). Besides the extension of this problem to the m -stage ?owshop problem, optimal solutions to some variations of the basic two-stage problem have been suggested. Mitten [3] considered arbitrary time lags, and optimal scheduling with setup times separated from processing was developed by Yoshida and Hitomi [4]. Separation of the setup, processing and removal times for each job on each machine was considered by Sule and Huang [5]. On the other hand, ?owshop scheduling problems with transfer batches have been examined by various researchers. Vickson
1 Introduction
Most classical shop scheduling models disregard the fact that products are often produced in lots, each lot (process batch) consisting of identical parts (items) to be produced. The size of a job lot (i.e., the number of items it consists of) typically ranges from a few items to several hundred. In any case, job lots are assumed to be indivisible single entities, although an entire job lot consists of many identical items. That is, partial transfer of completed items in a lot between machines on the processing routing of the job lot is impossible. But it is quite unreasonable to wait for the
F.C. ?etinkaya (u) Department of Industrial Engineering, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa-T.R.N.C., Mersin Turkey E-mail: ferda.cetinkaya@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1d9356439.html,.tr Tel.: +90-392-6301052 Fax: +90-392-3654029