英语阅读理解

英语阅读理解

----篇章结构题

所谓的篇章结构题，就是指那些针对文章的整体篇章结构或某一段落的发展层次所设置的问题。这类题主要考查同学们在理解全文的基础上对文章所描述事件的发展顺序、所说明事物的结构层次或在论述观点过程中使用的论证方法进行推测、归纳和总结的能力。在高考题中，这是一种较为新颖的考查方式，这里，我们将要探讨篇章结构题的解题方法。

一、篇章结构题的题干表现形式

1. What is the right order of the steps in doing ...?

2. The second paragraph is developed by ...

3. How is the passage mainly organized/ developed?

4. The author answers the question raised in the first paragraph with ...

5. Which of the following picture shows the structure of the passage?

6. In the next part, the author would most probably discuss with you ...

7.Which of the following best fits into paragraph 8?

二、篇章结构题的解答技巧

篇章结构题的考查对象无非是整个篇章或其中的某个段落，在解答此类题目之前，有必要对全篇或被考查的段落进行通读以了解其大意。由于题目提问方式较为单一，无非是文章或段落的发展方法，因此解题的关键在于找出篇章或段落中表示层次发展的关键词，如表示时间、方位、因果关系或对比的关联词等等。要做好这一类题，主要解题策略常有：

1.了解文章结构的组织形式。从段落组织方式上讲，常见的文章结构有三种：

总分式结构(总→分；总→分→总；分→总)、

并列式结构(段落之间是平行关系，并且相对独立)、

对照式结构(结构形式上是一正一反).

2.了解文章的写作手法在高考阅读理解中主要考查

下定义(definition)：下定义（definition）就是解释某事物是什么，不是什么。

A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．

用描述、举例或比较对比方法扩充定义

A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．It is of cylindrical shape and can be held between the first two fingers of the hand．It is about 6 inches long and 1／4 inch wide．At the end there is usually an eraser attached to the pencil by a surrounding metal band．Lead is the material which is used in making the marks on the paper，and a sharpener is needed to keep the pencil in good working order．Pencils are made of various kinds of wood．

分类说明(division and classification)：分类法（division and classification）是把一事物拆成几部分，表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常，作者以总类开头，然后把总类拆开，——列举部分或全部分类。

标志性词语：classify，kind，type，group，thought，way，class，part，element，factor，aspect，division，characteristic，subdivision，reasons，category，等等

There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library．First，there are books on all subjects，both in English and in many other languages．These books are organized according to subject，title，and author in a central filing system called card catalog．Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks．Second，there are reference materials，which include encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，etc．and which generally must be used in the library itself．Third，there are periodicals—magazines，news－papers，pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in racks or which have been micro－filmed to conserve space．Like reference works，periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library．

列举例证(listing examples)：举例法有两种形式，一种是首先陈述自己的观点，然后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点；另一种是先举一个很长的例子，然后转入例子所要阐明的观点。

标志性词语：for example，for instance ，such as，e.g.，say或let’s say （比如说），take …for example或take …as an example ，a case in point，to illustrate，an illustration of it等等

Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is uncertain，and when the risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to the one taking it．For example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelve－year－old girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the burning bedroom，and dragged him down the stairs and outside to safety．This was arousing display of courage．The girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered her sleeping brother．Disregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him．

对比(making comparison，contrast)：有时为了说明某一事物，需要与其他事物联系起来才能阐述清楚，这就是对比或比较（comparison or contrast）。比较方法和对比方法基本一致，不同的是比较强调两事物如何相同，对比强调两事物如何不同。

标志性词语Compared with/In contrast to/Unlike/just like/ while/whereas/differ/similar等等

The llama is a member of the camel family．Like the camel，the llama can live for weeks without a drink of water．Both get enough moisture from the grass，shrubs，and other plants they eat．But unlike the camel，the llama has no hump on its back．

过程，程序（process）：其目的是告诉读者怎样做某事，说明某事物的工作原理或某事物的制造方法。

Even if you don't know how to cook，you'll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled eggs．You begin by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan over low heat．While the butter is melting，break three eggs into a bowl．Add 1／4teaspoon of salt，1／4 teaspoon of paprika，and three tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix them for about a minute．Pour the mixture into the frying pan，break them into shreds with a fork，or stir them with a spoon until they become solid．When they are cooked，serve them with lightly buttered toast．

叙述（narration）：叙述法（narration）回答了“发生了什么”（what happened）这一问题。叙述经常用于讲述一系列事件。这种方法常用作小说（fiction）、传记（biographs）的支配方法，也可用作其他各种文体的辅助方法。例如，轶事（anecdotes）、寓言（fables）等都是用叙述形式阐述某一观点。

I was seven years old when I first became aware of the terrible power of guilt．For piling our toys into the toy box，Mother had rewarded my brother and me with five shiny pennies each．If I had ten pennies instead of just five，I could have bought a ginger bread man with raisin eyes and sugar－frosted hair．The image danced in my head all day，until，finally，I crept into my brother's room and stole his five pennies．The next morning，as my brother and I were dressing to go to school，I had all ten pennies in the pocket of my coat，cramming one of my father's handkerchiefs on top of them．As my brother and I lined up in front of Mother to be kissed goodbye，she looked at my bulging pocket with amazement．“What on earth do you have in your pocket？she asked．“It's nothing，”

I said，as offhandedly as I could．“It's nothing at all．”Bewildered，but toobusy to investigate any further，Mother kissed me goodbye I ran out the door and down our gravel path as fast as my feet could carry me．But the farther from home I got，the more miserable I became．The shiny pennies in my pocket felt oppressively like one－ton boulders．And I was haunted by the idea that I had become a thief．Forgotten was the gingerbread man，for whose sake I had stolen my brother's pennies Finally，unable to bear my horrible feeling of guilt，I ran back home to blurt out my crime to my mother．

描述(description) ：叙述讲述发生了什么事情，描述（description）则向读者描绘

某事物的样子、声音、味道等等。作者可以通过外表、行动或变化用语言描绘一个人，一个物体，一个地方或一个场面。

The kitchen was in a mess．Along the left wall were the counter and sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage．On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy clothes．Right next to the door where I was standing，on my right，I saw at able cluttered with old newspapers，an overturned catsup bottle，and a wet，half－eaten hot dog．At the far end of the right wall the refrigerator stood with the door ajar and milk dripping down from the top shelf．It was the messiest kitchen I had ever seen．

原因（cause）结果（effect ）：因果法（cause and effect）段落通常回答“why？”的问题。大多数人认为在自己或别人生活中发生的事情必然事出有因，因此总要知道为什么会发生这样或那样的事情。原因（cause）指的是导致结果的发生在过去的事情，结果（effect）指的是已发生的事情将会产生的后果

Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．Foremost is，that air and water quality in many cities have improved as a result of the 1970's pollution control efforts．Meanwhile，rural areas have been built up，leaving many animals on the edges of suburbs．In addition，urban wildlife refuges have been created．The Greater London Council last year spent ＄750,000 to buy land and build 10 permanent wildlife refuges in the city．As a result，many big birds are now living in the city．For peregrine falcons cities are actully safer than rural cliff dwellings．By 1970 the birds had died out east of the Mississippi because DDT had made their eggs too thin to support life．That year，scientist Tom Cade of Cornell University began raising the birds for release in cities，for cities affor ded plentyof food．

主题句：Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．

因果模式（Cause-effect Pattern）：

结果（Effect）：wild animals back to the cities

原因（Causes）：1．Air and water quality have improved．

2．Rural areas have been built up．

3．Urban wildlife refuges have been created．

事实（fact）不要把事实（fact）与看法（opinion）混为一谈，事实是真实的，因为它们已被证据证实。然而看法只是人们的主观想法，不一定真实。因此，记住用事实而不是用看法支持你的观点。

A snake is a strange animal．It walks on its ribs and it smells with its tongue．Since its teeth are sharp like needles and not good for chewing，it swallows its food whole．

主题句：A snake is a strange animal．

事实1：walks with its ribs and smells with its tongue

事实2：swallows its food whole

数据（data或statistic）

The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of population over the last three centuries．In the two hundred years from 1650 to 1850，world population doubled and reached its first billion．In the next eighty years，it doubled again，and by 1975，it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion．By the year 2000，it is estimated that it will exceed 6 billion and possibly approach 7 billion unless there is a major reduction in birth rates or amajor increase in death rates．

主题句：The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of population over the last three centuries．

提供信息：

数据1：1650-1850；double，reach 1 billion

数据2：1850－1930；double again，reach 2 billion

数据3：1930－1975；double again，reach 4 billion

数据4：1975－2000；exceed 6 billion，approach 7 billion

其他：引用（quote，quotation）

解释(explanation)

讨论(discussion)

分析（analyze，analysis）

3.了解文章的写作顺序

空间（place）：空间顺序主要用于描述，和时间顺序一样，是生活中经常使用的方法。你也许曾在信中向你父母描述你的学院，或向你的同学描述一个风景区。

时间（time）：时间顺序通常用于叙述和过程分析——先发生什么，然后怎样，再然后怎样，等等。其实在你的生活中你经常运用这种方法。你也许曾经告诉你父母在学校里发生的事情。你也许向老师或同学叙述过你是怎样做一个实验的。这些用的都是时间顺序。

重要性（importance）:使用重要性顺序法，可选用上升顺序（ascending order），或下降顺序（aescending oraer）。前者先列举次要观点，把重要的留到最末，后者先强调最重要的观点，然后列举次要观点。

熟悉度（familiarity）：对于某些段落，也许使用熟悉度顺序法（order of familiarity）

更恰当。这种方法根据读者对作者所选用的一系列细节的熟悉程度排列。例如，在分类段落中，作者经常先谈论读者比较熟悉的、具体的细节，然后谈论读者不大熟悉的细节。

现象（phenomenon）→分析（analysis）→结论（conclusion）

Put forward a question →Analyze the question → Solve the question

论点（Argument/Idea/Opinion）→论据（Evidence）→结论/强调论点

（Conclusion/ Restating the idea）

两种论点概述——一种论点——另一种论点

到目前为止，我们讨论了九种推展段落方法——1）事实数据法（facts and statistics）；2）叙述法（narration）；3）描述法（description）；4）过程分析法（process analysis）；5）定义法（definition）；6）举例法（examples）；7）比较对比法（comparison and contrast）；8）分类法（division and classification）；9）因果法（cause and effect）。我们还讨论了四种组织段落的方法：1）时间顺序法（time order）；2）空间顺序法（space order）；3）重要性顺序法（order of importance）；4）熟悉度顺序法（order of familiarity）。

我们在前面的示范段落中已经发现，极少段落是仅用一种推展方法的。作者常常在段落中使用一种方法作为支配方法（dominant method），另外一种或数种作为辅助方法（supporting method）

Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．One of the oddest incidents occurred on January 16，1900．An angry workman broke a crocodile mummy into pieces．He wassurprised to find that the mummy had been wrapped in sheets of papyrus，the reed paper of ancient Egypt．And on the papyrus there was writing．

主题句：Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．

组织段落顺序：Time order

支配推展方法：Example

辅助推展方法：Narration

另外，此类题型最常见的考法就是根据整篇文章的叙述发展或论证的步骤、过程推测出作者接下来要叙述的事件或将要发表的观点。此时，同学们要在正确理解篇章内容的基础上对文章的发展作出合理的推断。这些推断往往不是凭空臆断，而会在上文中给出一定的提示，或是所说明两个事物或人的其余一个，或是两种截然不同的观点的另一方面，总之，作者总会给读者最充分的证据以使读者能对文章的结构作出合理的推断。

例1：Armstrong showed a great talent(天赋) for music when he was taught to play the cornet(短号) at a boy’s home. In his late teens, Armstrong began to live the life of a musician. He played in parades, clubs, and on the steamboats that traveled on the Mississippi River. At that time, New Orleans was famous for the new music of jazz and was home to many great musicians. Armstrong learned from the older musicians and

soon became respected as their equal. (2007年陕西卷A篇)

42. The third paragraph is developed________.

A. by space

B. by examples

C. by time

D. by comparison

解析：题目对节选段落所描述事件的说明方法进行设题。此题需要从文章的细节理解着手。节选段落描写了Armstrong的学艺历程。从“at a boy’s home”和“In his late teens”，我们可以得知节选部分的情节发展方式是按照时间顺序进行的，因此答案为C。

例2：It is hardly surprising that clothing manufacturers （生产商）follow certain uniform standards for various features（特征）of clothes. What seems strange , however, is that the standard adopted for women is the opposite of the one for men. Take a loo k at the way your clothes button. Men’s clothes tend to button from the right, and women’s form the left. Considering most of the word’s population-men and women-are right-handed, the men’s standard would appear to make more sense for women. So why do wome n’s clothes button from the left? History really seems to matter here. Button first appeared only on the clothes of the rich in the 17th century, when rich women were dressed by servants. For the mostly right-handed servants, having women’s shirts butto n from the left would be easier. On the other hang, having men’s shirts button form the right made sense, too. Most men dressed themselves, and a sword drawn from the left with the right hang would be less likely to get caught in the shirt. Today women are seldom dressed by servants, but buttoning form the left is still the standard for them. Is it interesting? Actually, a standard , once set, resists change. At a time when all women’s shirts buttoned form the left, it would have been risky for any singl e manufacture to offer women’s shirts that buttoned the right. After all, women had grown so used to shirts which buttoned from the left and would have to develop new habits and skills to switch. Besides from the right, since anyone who noticed that would believe they were wearing men’s shirts. (2010年重庆高考卷C篇)

67. The passage is mainly developed by .

A. analyzing cause

B. making comparisons

C. examining differences

D. following the time order

例3：How can a creature weighing over 5 tons and normally taking 150 kilograms of food and 120 liters of water per day survive in a desert environment?

In the southwest African country of Namibia, and the Sahara lands of Mali further north, the desert elephant does just that.

Although not regarded as a separate species from the African elephant, the desert cousin differs in many ways. Their bodies are smaller to absorb less heat, and their feet are larger for easier walking across sandy surfaces. They are taller, to reach higher branches. They have shorter tusks（象牙），and most importantly, longer trunks to dig for water in riverbeds.

Desert elephants can travel over 70 kilometers in search for feeding grounds and waterholes, and have a larger group of families, They drink only every 3-4 days,

and can store water in a “bag” at the back of their throat, which is only used when badly needed. Desert elephants are careful feeders—they seldom root up trees and break fewer branches, and thus maintain what little food sources are available. Young elephants may even eat the dung（粪便）of the female leader of a group when facing food shortage.

During drought they are unlikely to give birth to their young but with good rains the birth rate will increase greatly. Desert elephants have sand baths, s

As we continue to overheat our weak planet, it can only be hoped that other animal species will adapt as extraordinarily well to change as the desert elephant.（2007年湖北卷B篇）

67. The author answers the question raised in the first paragraph with____________.

A. stories and explanation

B. facts and descriptions

C. examples and conclusion

D. evidence and argument

解析：答案为B。题目问作者对于文首提出的问题是如何进行解答的。此题需要在通读全文了解了文章大意后才可做出解答。从全文来看，第一段提出了沙漠象如何在恶劣的环境中生存的疑问。接下来，作者一方面对沙漠象的生理构造进行了解释，另一方面也对沙漠象的生活习性进行说明。比较四个选项可知，作者并没有给我们讲什么故事，故A选项排除；也没有通过例子得出什么结论，故C选项排除；文章只是用一种说明的方式介绍了沙漠象的特点，没有明确主张哪种观点，因此D选项也应排除。

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