ASTM D256-2010

Designation:D256–10

Standard Test Methods for

Determining the Izod Pendulum Impact Resistance of Plastics1

This standard is issued under the?xed designation D256;the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original adoption or,in the case of revision,the year of last revision.A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A superscript epsilon(′)indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.

1.Scope*

1.1These test methods cover the determination of the resistance of plastics to“standardized”(see Note1)pendulum-type hammers,mounted in“standardized”machines,in break-ing standard specimens with one pendulum swing(see Note2). The standard tests for these test methods require specimens made with a milled notch(see Note3).In Test Methods A,C, and D,the notch produces a stress concentration that increases the probability of a brittle,rather than a ductile,fracture.In Test Method E,the impact resistance is obtained by reversing the notched specimen180°in the clamping vise.The results of all test methods are reported in terms of energy absorbed per unit of specimen width or per unit of cross-sectional area under the notch.(See Note4.)

N OTE1—The machines with their pendulum-type hammers have been “standardized”in that they must comply with certain requirements, including a?xed height of hammer fall that results in a substantially?xed velocity of the hammer at the moment of impact.However,hammers of different initial energies(produced by varying their effective weights)are recommended for use with specimens of different impact resistance. Moreover,manufacturers of the equipment are permitted to use different lengths and constructions of pendulums with possible differences in pendulum rigidities resulting.(See Section5.)Be aware that other differences in machine design may exist.The specimens are“standard-ized”in that they are required to have one?xed length,one?xed depth, and one particular design of milled notch.The width of the specimens is permitted to vary between limits.

N OTE2—Results generated using pendulums that utilize a load cell to record the impact force and thus impact energy,may not be equivalent to results that are generated using manually or digitally encoded testers that measure the energy remaining in the pendulum after impact.

N OTE3—The notch in the Izod specimen serves to concentrate the stress,minimize plastic deformation,and direct the fracture to the part of the specimen behind the notch.Scatter in energy-to-break is thus reduced. However,because of differences in the elastic and viscoelastic properties of plastics,response to a given notch varies among materials.A measure of a plastic’s“notch sensitivity”may be obtained with Test Method D by comparing the energies to break specimens having different radii at the base of the notch.

N OTE4—Caution must be exercised in interpreting the results of these standard test methods.The following testing parameters may affect test results signi?cantly:

Method of fabrication,including but not limited to processing

technology,molding conditions,mold design,and thermal

treatments;

Method of notching;

Speed of notching tool;

Design of notching apparatus;

Quality of the notch;

Time between notching and test;

Test specimen thickness,

Test specimen width under notch,and

Environmental conditioning.

1.2The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard.The values given in parentheses are for information only.

1.3This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns,if any,associated with its use.It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.

N OTE5—These test methods resemble ISO180:1993in regard to title only.The contents are signi?cantly different.

2.Referenced Documents

2.1ASTM Standards:2

D618Practice for Conditioning Plastics for Testing

D883Terminology Relating to Plastics

D3641Practice for Injection Molding Test Specimens of Thermoplastic Molding and Extrusion Materials

D4066Classi?cation System for Nylon Injection and Ex-trusion Materials(PA)

D5947Test Methods for Physical Dimensions of Solid Plastics Specimens

1These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D20on Plastics and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D20.10on Mechanical

Properties.

Current edition approved May1,2010.Published June2010.Originally approved https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,st previous edition approved in2006as D256-06a′1.DOI: 10.1520/D0256-10.

2For referenced ASTM standards,visit the ASTM website,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,,or contact ASTM Customer Service at service@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,.For Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume information,refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTM website.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard. Copyright?ASTM International,100Barr Harbor Drive,PO Box C700,West Conshohocken,PA19428-2959,United States.

D6110Test Method for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Specimens of Plastics

E691Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test Method

2.2ISO Standard:

ISO180:1993Plastics—Determination of Izod Impact Strength of Rigid Materials3

3.Terminology

3.1De?nitions—For de?nitions related to plastics see Terminology D883.

3.2De?nitions of Terms Speci?c to This Standard:

3.2.1cantilever—a projecting beam clamped at only one end.

3.2.2notch sensitivity—a measure of the variation of impact energy as a function of notch radius.

4.Types of Tests

4.1Four similar methods are presented in these test meth-ods.(See Note6.)All test methods use the same testing machine and specimen dimensions.There is no known means for correlating the results from the different test methods.

N OTE6—Previous versions of this test method contained Test Method B for Charpy.It has been removed from this test method and has been published as D6110.

4.1.1In Test Method A,the specimen is held as a vertical cantilever beam and is broken by a single swing of the pendulum.The line of initial contact is at a?xed distance from the specimen clamp and from the centerline of the notch and on the same face as the notch.

4.1.2Test Method C is similar to Test Method A,except for the addition of a procedure for determining the energy ex-pended in tossing a portion of the specimen.The value reported is called the“estimated net Izod impact resistance.”Test Method C is preferred over Test Method A for materials that have an Izod impact resistance of less than27J/m(0.5 ft·lbf/in.)under notch.(See Appendix X4for optional units.) The differences between Test Methods A and C become unimportant for materials that have an Izod impact resistance higher than this value.

4.1.3Test Method D provides a measure of the notch sensitivity of a material.The stress-concentration at the notch increases with decreasing notch radius.

4.1.3.1For a given system,greater stress concentration results in higher localized rates-of-strain.Since the effect of strain-rate on energy-to-break varies among materials,a mea-sure of this effect may be obtained by testing specimens with different notch radii.In the Izod-type test it has been demon-strated that the function,energy-to-break versus notch radius, is reasonably linear from a radius of0.03to2.5mm(0.001to 0.100in.),provided that all specimens have the same type of break.(See

5.8and22.1.)

4.1.3.2For the purpose of this test,the slope,b(see22.1), of the line between radii of0.25and1.0mm(0.010and0.040 in.)is used,unless tests with the1.0-mm radius give“non-break”results.In that case,0.25and0.50-mm(0.010and 0.020-in.)radii may be used.The effect of notch radius on the impact energy to break a specimen under the conditions of this test is measured by the value b.Materials with low values of b, whether high or low energy-to-break with the standard notch, are relatively insensitive to differences in notch radius;while the energy-to-break materials with high values of b is highly dependent on notch radius.The parameter b cannot be used in design calculations but may serve as a guide to the designer and in selection of materials.

4.2Test Method E is similar to Test Method A,except that the specimen is reversed in the vise of the machine180°to the usual striking position,such that the striker of the apparatus impacts the specimen on the face opposite the notch.(See Fig. 1,Fig.2.)Test Method E is used to give an indication of the unnotched impact resistance of plastics;however,results ob-tained by the reversed notch method may not always agree with those obtained on a completely unnotched specimen.(See 28.1.)4,5

5.Signi?cance and Use

5.1Before proceeding with these test methods,reference should be made to the speci?cation of the material being tested. Any test specimen preparation,conditioning,dimensions,and testing parameters covered in the materials speci?cation shall take precedence over those mentioned in these test methods.If there is no material speci?cation,then the default conditions apply.

5.2The pendulum impact test indicates the energy to break standard test specimens of speci?ed size under stipulated parameters of specimen mounting,notching,and pendulum velocity-at-impact.

3Available from American National Standards Institute(ANSI),25W.43rd St., 4th Floor,New York,NY10036,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,.

4Supporting data giving results of the interlaboratory tests are available from ASTM Headquarters.Request RR:D20-1021.

5Supporting data giving results of the interlaboratory tests are available from ASTM Headquarters.Request

RR:D20-1026.

FIG.1Relationship of Vise,Specimen,and Striking Edge to Each Other for Izod Test Methods A and

C

5.3The energy lost by the pendulum during the breakage of the specimen is the sum of the following:

5.3.1Energy to initiate fracture of the specimen;

5.3.2Energy to propagate the fracture across the specimen;5.3.3Energy to throw the free end (or ends)of the broken specimen (“toss correction”);

5.3.4Energy to bend the specimen;

5.3.5Energy to produce vibration in the pendulum arm;5.3.6Energy to produce vibration or horizontal movement of the machine frame or base;

5.3.7Energy to overcome friction in the pendulum bearing and in the indicating mechanism,and to overcome windage (pendulum air drag);

5.3.8Energy to indent or deform plastically the specimen at the line of impact;and

5.3.9Energy to overcome the friction caused by the rubbing of the striker (or other part of the pendulum)over the face of the bent specimen.

5.4For relatively brittle materials,for which fracture propa-gation energy is small in comparison with the fracture initiation energy,the indicated impact energy absorbed is,for all practical purposes,the sum of factors 5.3.1and 5.3.3.The toss correction (see 5.3.3)may represent a very large fraction of the total energy absorbed when testing relatively dense and brittle materials.Test Method C shall be used for materials that have an Izod impact resistance of less than 27J/m (0.5ft·lbf/in.).(See Appendix X4for optional units.)The toss correction obtained in Test Method C is only an approximation of the toss error,since the rotational and rectilinear velocities may not be the same during the re-toss of the specimen as for the original toss,and because stored stresses in the specimen may have been released as kinetic energy during the specimen fracture.5.5For tough,ductile,?ber ?lled,or cloth-laminated mate-rials,the fracture propagation energy (see 5.3.2)may be large compared to the fracture initiation energy (see 5.3.1).When testing these materials,factors (see 5.3.2,5.3.5,and 5.3.9)can

become quite signi?cant,even when the specimen is accurately machined and positioned and the machine is in good condition with adequate capacity.(See Note 7.)Bending (see 5.3.4)and indentation losses (see 5.3.8)may be appreciable when testing soft materials.

N OTE 7—Although the frame and base of the machine should be sufficiently rigid and massive to handle the energies of tough specimens without motion or excessive vibration,the design must ensure that the center of percussion be at the center of strike.Locating the striker precisely at the center of percussion reduces vibration of the pendulum arm when used with brittle specimens.However,some losses due to pendulum arm vibration,the amount varying with the design of the pendulum,will occur with tough specimens,even when the striker is properly positioned.

5.6In a well-designed machine of sufficient rigidity and mass,the losses due to factors 5.3.6and 5.3.7should be very small.Vibrational losses (see 5.3.6)can be quite large when wide specimens of tough materials are tested in machines of insufficient mass,not securely fastened to a heavy base.

5.7With some materials,a critical width of specimen may be found below which specimens will appear ductile,as evidenced by considerable drawing or necking down in the region behind the notch and by a relatively high-energy absorption,and above which they will appear brittle as evidenced by little or no drawing down or necking and by a relatively low-energy absorption.Since these methods permit a variation in the width of the specimens,and since the width dictates,for many materials,whether a brittle,low-energy break or a ductile,high energy break will occur,it is necessary that the width be stated in the speci?cation covering that material and that the width be reported along with the impact resistance.In view of the preceding,one should not make comparisons between data from specimens having widths that differ by more than a few mils.

5.8The type of failure for each specimen shall be recorded as one of the four categories listed as follows:

C =Complete Break —A break where the specimen separates into two or more pieces.

H =

Hinge Break —An incomplete break,such that one part of the specimen cannot support itself above the horizontal when the other part is held vertically (less than 90°included angle).

P =

Partial Break —An incomplete break that does not meet the de?nition for a hinge break but has frac-tured at least 90%of the distance between the vertex of the notch and the opposite side.

NB =

Non-Break —An incomplete break where the frac-ture extends less than 90%of the distance be-tween the vertex of the notch and the opposite side.

For tough materials,the pendulum may not have the energy necessary to complete the breaking of the extreme ?bers and toss the broken piece or pieces.Results obtained from “non-break”specimens shall be considered a departure from stan-dard and shall not be reported as a standard result.Impact resistance cannot be directly compared for any two materials that experience different types of failure as de?ned in the test method by this code.Averages reported must likewise be derived from specimens contained within a single failure category.This letter code shall suffix the reported impact identifying the types of failure associated with the reported value.If more than one type of failure is observed for a

sample

FIG.2Relationship of Vise,Specimen,and Striking Edge to Each

Other for Test Method

E

material,then the report will indicate the average impact resistance for each type of failure,followed by the percent of the specimens failing in that manner and suffixed by the letter code.

5.9The value of the impact methods lies mainly in the areas of quality control and materials speci?cation.If two groups of specimens of supposedly the same material show signi?cantly different energy absorptions,types of breaks,critical widths,or critical temperatures,it may be assumed that they were made of different materials or were exposed to different processing or conditioning environments.The fact that a material shows twice the energy absorption of another under these conditions of test does not indicate that this same relationship will exist under another set of test conditions.The order of toughness may even be reversed under different testing conditions.

N OTE8—A documented discrepancy exists between manual and digital impact testers,primarily with thermoset materials,including phenolics, having an impact value of less than54J/m(1ft-lb/in.).Comparing data on the same material,tested on both manual and digital impact testers, may show the data from the digital tester to be signi?cantly lower than data from a manual tester.In such cases a correlation study may be necessary to properly de?ne the true relationship between the instruments.

TEST METHOD A—CANTILEVER BEAM TEST

6.Apparatus

6.1The machine shall consist of a massive base on which is mounted a vise for holding the specimen and to which is connected,through a rigid frame and bearings,a pendulum-type hammer.(See 6.2.)The machine must also have a pendulum holding and releasing mechanism and a mechanism for indicating the breaking energy of the specimen.

6.2A jig for positioning the specimen in the vise and graphs or tables to aid in the calculation of the correction for friction and windage also should be included.One type of machine is shown in Fig.3.One design of specimen-positioning jig is illustrated in Fig.4.Detailed requirements are given in subsequent paragraphs.General test methods for checking and calibrating the machine are given in Appendix X2.Additional instructions for adjusting a particular machine should be supplied by the manufacturer.

6.3The pendulum shall consist of a single or multi-membered arm with a bearing on one end and a head, containing the striker,on the other.The arm must be suffi-ciently rigid to maintain the proper clearances and geometric relationships between the machine parts and the specimen and to minimize vibrational energy losses that are always included

in the measured impact resistance.Both simple and compound pendulum designs may comply with this test method.

6.4The striker of the pendulum shall be hardened steel and shall be a cylindrical surface having a radius of curvature of 0.8060.20mm(0.03160.008in.)with its axis horizontal and perpendicular to the plane of swing of the pendulum.The line of contact of the striker shall be located at the center of percussion of the pendulum within62.54mm(60.100in.) (See Note9.)Those portions of the pendulum adjacent to the cylindrical striking edge shall be recessed or inclined at a suitable angle so that there will be no chance for other than this cylindrical surface coming in contact with the specimen during the break.

N OTE9—The distance from the axis of support to the center of percussion may be determined experimentally from the period of small amplitude oscillations of the pendulum by means of the following equation:

L5~g/4p2!p

2

FIG.3Cantilever Beam(Izod-Type)Impact

Machine FIG.4Jig for Positioning Specimen for

Clamping

where:

L=distance from the axis of support to the center of percussion,m or(ft),

g=local gravitational acceleration(known to an accuracy of one part in one thousand),m/s2or(ft/s2),

p= 3.1416(4p2=39.48),and

p=period,s,of a single complete swing(to and fro)determined by averaging at least20consecutive and uninterrupted swings.The

angle of swing shall be less than5°each side of center.

6.5The position of the pendulum holding and releasing mechanism shall be such that the vertical height of fall of the striker shall be61062mm(24.060.1in.).This will produce a velocity of the striker at the moment of impact of approxi-mately3.5m(11.4ft)/s.(See Note10.)The mechanism shall be so constructed and operated that it will release the pendulum without imparting acceleration or vibration to it.

N OTE10—

V5~2gh!0.5

where:

V=velocity of the striker at the moment of impact(m/s),

g=local gravitational acceleration(m/s2),and

h=vertical height of fall of the striker(m).

This assumes no windage or friction.

6.6The effective length of the pendulum shall be between 0.33and0.40m(12.8and16.0in.)so that the required elevation of the striker may be obtained by raising the pendulum to an angle between60and30°above the horizontal.

6.7The machine shall be provided with a basic pendulum capable of delivering an energy of2.760.14J(2.0060.10 ft·lbf).This pendulum shall be used with all specimens that extract less than85%of this energy.Heavier pendulums shall be provided for specimens that require more energy to break. These may be separate interchangeable pendulums or one basic pendulum to which extra pairs of equal calibrated weights may be rigidly attached to opposite sides of the pendulum.It is imperative that the extra weights shall not signi?cantly change the position of the center of percussion or the free-hanging rest point of the pendulum(that would consequently take the machine outside of the allowable calibration tolerances).A range of pendulums having energies from2.7to21.7J(2to16 ft·lbf)has been found to be sufficient for use with most plastic specimens and may be used with most machines.A series of pendulums such that each has twice the energy of the next will be found convenient.Each pendulum shall have an energy within60.5%of its nominal capacity.

6.8A vise shall be provided for clamping the specimen rigidly in position so that the long axis of the specimen is vertical and at right angles to the top plane of the vise.(See Fig.

1.)This top plane shall bisect the angle of the notch with a tolerance of0.12mm(0.005in.).Correct positioning of the specimen is generally done with a jig furnished with the machine.The top edges of the?xed and moveable jaws shall have a radius of0.2560.12mm(0.01060.005in.).For specimens whose thickness approaches the lower limiting value of3.00mm(0.118in.),means shall be provided to prevent the lower half of the specimen from moving during the clamping or testing operations(see Fig.4and Note11.)

N OTE11—Some plastics are sensitive to clamping pressure;therefore,cooperating laboratories should agree upon some means of standardizing the clamping force.One method is using a torque wrench on the screw of the specimen vise.If the faces of the vise or specimen are not?at and parallel,a greater sensitivity to clamping pressure may be evident.See the calibration procedure in Appendix X2for adjustment and correction instructions for faulty instruments.

6.9When the pendulum is free hanging,the striking surface shall come within0.2%of scale of touching the front face of a standard specimen.During an actual swing this element shall make initial contact with the specimen on a line22.0060.05 mm(0.8760.002in.)above the top surface of the vise. 6.10Means shall be provided for determining the energy expended by the pendulum in breaking the specimen.This is accomplished using either a pointer and dial mechanism or an electronic system consisting of a digital indicator and sensor (typically an encoder or resolver).In either case,the indicated breaking energy is determined by detecting the height of rise of the pendulum beyond the point of impact in terms of energy removed from that speci?c pendulum.Since the indicated energy must be corrected for pendulum-bearing friction, pointer friction,pointer inertia,and pendulum windage,in-structions for making these corrections are included in10.3and Annex A1and Annex A2.If the electronic display does not automatically correct for windage and friction,it shall be incumbent for the operator to determine the energy loss manually.(See Note12.)

N OTE12—Many digital indicating systems automatically correct for windage and friction.The equipment manufacturer may be consulted for details concerning how this is performed,or if it is necessary to determine the means for manually calculating the energy loss due to windage and friction.

6.11The vise,pendulum,and frame shall be sufficiently rigid to maintain correct alignment of the hammer and speci-men,both at the moment of impact and during the propagation of the fracture,and to minimize energy losses due to vibration. The base shall be sufficiently massive that the impact will not cause it to move.The machine shall be so designed,con-structed,and maintained that energy losses due to pendulum air drag(windage),friction in the pendulum bearings,and friction and inertia in the indicating mechanism are held to a minimum.

6.12A check of the calibration of an impact machine is difficult to make under dynamic conditions.The basic param-eters are normally checked under static conditions;if the machine passes the static tests,then it is assumed to be accurate.The calibration procedure in Appendix X2should be used to establish the accuracy of the equipment.However,for some machine designs it might be necessary to change the recommended method of obtaining the required calibration measurements.Other methods of performing the required checks may be substituted,provided that they can be shown to result in an equivalent accuracy.Appendix X1also describes a dynamic test for checking certain features of the machine and specimen.

6.13Micrometers—Apparatus for measurement of the width of the specimen shall comply with the requirements of Test Methods D594

7.Apparatus for the measurement of the depth of plastic material remaining in the specimen under the notch shall comply with requirements of Test Methods D5947, provided however that the one anvil or presser foot shall be

a

tapered blade conforming to the dimensions given in Fig.5.The opposing anvil or presser foot shall be ?at and conforming to Test Methods D5947.

7.Test Specimens

7.1The test specimens shall conform to the dimensions and geometry of Fig.6,except as modi?ed in accordance with 7.2,7.3,7.4,and 7.5.To ensure the correct contour and conditions of the speci?ed notch,all specimens shall be notched as directed in Section 8.

7.1.1Studies have shown that,for some materials,the location of the notch on the specimen and the length of the impacted end may have a slight effect on the measured impact resistance.Therefore,unless otherwise speci?ed,care must be taken to ensure that the specimen conforms to the dimensions shown in Fig.6and that it is positioned as shown in Fig.1or Fig.2.

7.2Molded specimens shall have a width between 3.0and 12.7mm (0.118and 0.500in.).Use the specimen width as speci?ed in the material speci?cation or as agreed

upon

N OTE 1—These views not to scale.

N OTE 2—Micrometer to be satin-chrome ?nished with friction thimble.

N OTE 3—Special anvil for micrometer caliper 0to 25.4mm range (50.8mm frame)(0to 1in.range (2-in.frame)).N OTE 4—Anvil to be oriented with respect to frame as shown.N OTE 5—Anvil and spindle to have hardened surfaces.

N OTE 6—Range:0to 25.4mm (0to 1in.in thousandths of an inch).

N OTE 7—Adjustment must be at zero when spindle and anvil are in contact.

FIG.5Early (ca.1970)Version of a Notch-Depth

Micrometer

between the supplier and the customer.All specimens having one dimension less than 12.7mm (0.500in.)shall have the notch cut on the shorter side.Otherwise,all compression-molded specimens shall be notched on the side parallel to the direction of application of molding pressure.(See Fig.6.)

N OTE 13—While subsection 7.5requires perpendicular pairs of plane parallel surfaces,the common practice has been to accept the non-parallel drafted surfaces formed when directly injection molding specimens for Izod https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,ers must be aware that employing a trapezoidal section rather than a rectangular section may lead to data shifts and scatter.Unequal stress,created by clamping in the fracture region and dynamic twisting,caused by uneven striking of the specimen are prone to occur when the faces of the specimen are not parallel.Interlaboratory compari-sons must clearly spell out the specimen preparation conditions.

7.2.1Extreme care must be used in handling specimens less than 6.35mm (0.250in.)wide.Such specimens must be accurately positioned and supported to prevent twist or lateral buckling during the test.Some materials,furthermore,are very sensitive to clamping pressure (see Note 11).

7.2.2A critical investigation of the mechanics of impact testing has shown that tests made upon specimens under 6.35mm (0.250in.)wide absorb more energy due to crushing,bending,and twisting than do wider specimens.Therefore,specimens 6.35mm (0.250in.)or over in width are recom-mended.The responsibility for determining the minimum

specimen width shall be the investigator’s,with due reference to the speci?cation for that material.

7.2.3Material speci?cation should be consulted for pre-ferred molding conditions.The type of mold and molding machine used and the ?ow behavior in the mold cavity will in?uence the impact resistance obtained.A specimen taken from one end of a molded plaque may give different results than a specimen taken from the other end.Cooperating laboratories should therefore agree on standard molds con-forming to the material speci?cation.Practice D3641can be used as a guide for general molding tolerances,but refer to the material speci?cation for speci?c molding conditions.

7.2.4The impact resistance of a plastic material may be different if the notch is perpendicular to,rather than parallel to,the direction of molding.The same is true for specimens cut with or across the grain of an anisotropic sheet or plate.

7.3For sheet materials,the specimens shall be cut from the sheet in both the lengthwise and crosswise directions unless otherwise speci?ed.The width of the specimen shall be the thickness of the sheet if the sheet thickness is between 3.0and 12.7mm (0.118and 0.500in.).Sheet material thicker than 12.7mm shall be machined down to 12.7mm.Specimens with a 12.7-mm square cross section may be tested either edgewise or ?atwise as cut from the sheet.When specimens are tested ?atwise,the notch shall be made on the machined surface if

the

mm

in.

A 10.1660.050.40060.002

B 31.861.0 1.2560.04

C 63.562.0 2.5060.08

D 0.25R 60.050.010R 60.002E

12.7060.200.50060.008

FIG.6Dimensions of Izod-Type Test

Specimen

specimen is machined on one face only.When the specimen is cut from a thick sheet,notation shall be made of the portion of the thickness of the sheet from which the specimen was cut,for example,center,top,or bottom surface.

7.4The practice of cementing,bolting,clamping,or other-wise combining specimens of substandard width to form a composite test specimen is not recommended and should be avoided since test results may be seriously affected by interface effects or effects of solvents and cements on energy absorption of composite test specimens,or both.However,if Izod test data on such thin materials are required when no other means of preparing specimens are available,and if possible sources of error are recognized and acceptable,the following technique of preparing composites may be utilized.

7.4.1The test specimen shall be a composite of individual thin specimens totaling6.35to12.7mm(0.250to0.500in.)in width.Individual members of the composite shall be accurately aligned with each other and clamped,bolted,or cemented together.The composite shall be machined to proper dimen-sions and then notched.In all such cases the use of composite specimens shall be noted in the report of test results.

7.4.2Care must be taken to select a solvent or adhesive that will not affect the impact resistance of the material under test. If solvents or solvent-containing adhesives are employed,a conditioning procedure shall be established to ensure complete removal of the solvent prior to test.

7.5Each specimen shall be free of twist(see Note14)and shall have mutually perpendicular pairs of plane parallel surfaces and free from scratches,pits,and sink marks.The specimens shall be checked for compliance with these require-ments by visual observation against straightedges,squares,and ?at plates,and by measuring with micrometer calipers.Any specimen showing observable or measurable departure from one or more of these requirements shall be rejected or machined to the proper size and shape before testing.

N OTE14—A specimen that has a slight twist to its notched face of0.05 mm(0.002in.)at the point of contact with the pendulum striking edge will be likely to have a characteristic fracture surface with considerable greater fracture area than for a normal break.In this case the energy to break and toss the broken section may be considerably larger(20to30%)than for a normal break.A tapered specimen may require more energy to bend it in the vise before fracture.

8.Notching Test Specimens

8.1Notching shall be done on a milling machine,engine lathe,or other suitable machine tool.Both the feed speed and the cutter speed shall be constant throughout the notching operation(see Note15).Provision for cooling the specimen with either a liquid or gas coolant is recommended.A single-tooth cutter shall be used for notching the specimen,unless notches of an equivalent quality can be produced with a multi-tooth cutter.Single-tooth cutters are preferred because of the ease of grinding the cutter to the specimen contour and because of the smoother cut on the specimen.The cutting edge shall be carefully ground and honed to ensure sharpness and freedom from nicks and burrs.Tools with no rake and a work relief angle of15to20°have been found satisfactory.

N OTE15—For some thermoplastics,cutter speeds from53to150 m/min(175to490ft/min)at a feed speed of89to160mm/min(3.5to6.3in./min)without a water coolant or the same cutter speeds at a feed speed of from36to160mm/min(1.4to 6.3in./min)with water coolant produced suitable notches.

8.2Specimens may be notched separately or in a group. However,in either case an unnotched backup or“dummy bar”shall be placed behind the last specimen in the sample holder to prevent distortion and chipping by the cutter as it exits from the last test specimen.

8.3The pro?le of the cutting tooth or teeth shall be such as to produce a notch of the contour and depth in the test specimen as speci?ed in Fig.6(see Note16).The included angle of the notch shall be4561°with a radius of curvature at the apex of0.2560.05mm(0.01060.002in.).The plane bisecting the notch angle shall be perpendicular to the face of the test specimen within2°.

N OTE16—There is evidence that notches in materials of widely varying physical dimensions may differ in contour even when using the same cutter.

8.4The depth of the plastic material remaining in the specimen under the notch shall be10.1660.05mm(0.4006 0.002in.).This dimension shall be measured with apparatus in accordance with6.13.The tapered blade will be?tted to the notch.The specimen will be approximately vertical between the anvils.For specimens with a draft angle,position edge of the non-cavity(wider edge)surface centered on the microme-ter’s?at circular anvil.

8.5Cutter speed and feed speed should be chosen appropri-ate for the material being tested since the quality of the notch may be adversely affected by thermal deformations and stresses induced during the cutting operation if proper condi-tions are not selected.6The notching parameters used shall not alter the physical state of the material such as by raising the temperature of a thermoplastic above its glass transition temperature.In general,high cutter speeds,slow feed rates,and lack of coolant induce more thermal damage than a slow cutter speed,fast feed speed,and the use of a coolant.Too high a feed speed/cutter speed ratio,however,may cause impacting and cracking of the specimen.The range of cutter speed/feed ratios possible to produce acceptable notches can be extended by the use of a suitable coolant.(See Note17.)In the case of new types of plastics,it is necessary to study the effect of variations in the notching conditions.(See Note18.)

N OTE17—Water or compressed gas is a suitable coolant for many plastics.

N OTE18—Embedded thermocouples,or another temperature measur-ing device,can be used to determine the temperature rise in the material near the apex of the notch during machining.Thermal stresses induced during the notching operation can be observed in transparent materials by viewing the specimen at low magni?cation between crossed polars in monochromatic light.

8.6A notching operation notches one or more specimens plus the“dummy bar”at a single pass through the notcher.The specimen notch produced by each cutter will be examined after every500notching operations or less frequently if experience shows this to be acceptable.The notch in the specimen,made 6Supporting data are available from ASTM Headquarters.Request RR:D20-

1066.

of the material to be tested,shall be inspected and veri?ed.One procedure for the inspection and veri?cation of the notch is presented in Appendix X1.Each type of material being notched must be inspected and veri?ed at that time.If the angle or radius does not fall within the speci?ed limits for materials of satisfactory machining characteristics,then the cutter shall be replaced with a newly sharpened and honed one.(See Note19.) N OTE19—A carbide-tipped or industrial diamond-tipped notching cutter is recommended for longer service life.

9.Conditioning

9.1Conditioning—Condition the test specimens at236 2°C(7363.6°F)and50610%relative humidity for not less than40h after notching and prior to testing in accordance with Procedure A of Practice D618,unless it can be documented (between supplier and customer)that a shorter conditioning time is sufficient for a given material to reach equilibrium of impact resistance.

9.1.1Note that for some hygroscopic materials,such as nylons,the material speci?cations(for example,Speci?cation D4066)call for testing“dry as-molded specimens.”Such requirements take precedence over the above routine precon-ditioning to50%relative humidity and require sealing the specimens in water vapor-impermeable containers as soon as molded and not removing them until ready for testing.

9.2Test Conditions—Conduct tests in the standard labora-tory atmosphere of2362°C(7363.6°F)and50610% relative humidity,unless otherwise speci?ed in the material speci?cation or by customer requirements.In cases of dis-agreement,the tolerances shall be61°C(61.8°F)and65% relative humidity.

10.Procedure

10.1At least?ve and preferably ten or more individual determinations of impact resistance must be made on each sample to be tested under the conditions prescribed in Section 9.Each group shall consist of specimens with the same nominal width(60.13mm(60.005in.)).In the case of specimens cut from sheets that are suspected of being aniso-tropic,prepare and test specimens from each principal direc-tion(lengthwise and crosswise to the direction of anisotropy).

10.2Estimate the breaking energy for the specimen and select a pendulum of suitable https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,e the lightest standard pendulum that is expected to break each specimen in the group with a loss of not more than85%of its energy(see Note20). Check the machine with the proper pendulum in place for conformity with the requirements of Section6before starting the tests.(See Appendix X1.)

N OTE20—Ideally,an impact test would be conducted at a constant test velocity.In a pendulum-type test,the velocity decreases as the fracture progresses.For specimens that have an impact energy approaching the capacity of the pendulum there is insufficient energy to complete the break and toss.By avoiding the higher15%scale energy readings,the velocity of the pendulum will not be reduced below1.3m/s(4.4ft/s).On the other hand,the use of too heavy a pendulum would reduce the sensitivity of the reading.

10.3If the machine is equipped with a mechanical pointer and dial,perform the following operations before testing the specimens.If the machine is equipped with a digital indicating system,follow the manufacturer’s instructions to correct for windage and friction.If excessive friction is indicated,the machine shall be adjusted before starting a test.

10.3.1With the indicating pointer in its normal starting position but without a specimen in the vise,release the pendulum from its normal starting position and note the position the pointer attains after the swing as one reading of Factor A.

10.3.2Without resetting the pointer,raise the pendulum and release again.The pointer should move up the scale an additional amount.Repeat(10.3.2)until a swing causes no additional movement of the pointer and note the?nal reading as one reading of Factor B(see Note21).

10.3.3Repeat the preceding two operations several times and calculate and record the average A and B readings.

N OTE21—Factor B is an indication of the energy lost by the pendulum to friction in the pendulum bearings and to windage.The difference A–B is an indication of the energy lost to friction and inertia in the indicating mechanism.However,the actual corrections will be smaller than these factors,since in an actual test the energy absorbed by the specimen prevents the pendulum from making a full swing.Therefore,the indicated breaking energy of the specimen must be included in the calculation of the machine correction before determining the breaking energy of the speci-men(see10.8).The A and B values also provide an indication of the condition of the machine.

10.3.4If excessive friction is indicated,the machine shall be adjusted before starting a test.

10.4Check the specimens for conformity with the require-ments of Sections7,8,and10.1.

10.5Measure and record the width of each specimen after notching to the nearest0.025mm(0.001in.).Measure the width in one location adjacent to the notch centered about the anticipated fracture plane.

10.6Measure and record the depth of material remaining in the specimen under the notch of each specimen to the nearest 0.025mm(0.001in.).The tapered blade will be?tted to the notch.The specimen will be approximately vertical between the anvils.For specimens with a draft angle,position edge of the non-cavity(wider edge)surface centered on the microme-ter’s?at circular anvil.

10.7Position the specimen precisely(see6.7)so that it is rigidly,but not too tightly(see Note11),clamped in the vise. Pay special attention to ensure that the“impacted end”of the specimen as shown and dimensioned in Fig.6is the end projecting above the vise.Release the pendulum and record the indicated breaking energy of the specimen together with a description of the appearance of the broken specimen(see failure categories in5.8).

10.8Subtract the windage and friction correction from the indicated breaking energy of the specimen,unless determined automatically by the indicating system(that is,digital display or computer).If a mechanical dial and pointer is employed,use the A and B factors and the appropriate tables or the graph described in Annex A1and Annex A2to determine the correction.For those digital systems that do not automatically compensate for windage and friction,follow the manufactur-er’s procedure for performing this correction.

10.8.1In other words,either manually or automatically,the windage and friction correction value is subtracted from

the

uncorrected,indicated breaking energy to obtain the new breaking https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,pare the net value so found with the energy requirement of the hammer speci?ed in10.2.If a hammer of improper energy was used,discard the result and make additional tests on new specimens with the proper hammer.(See Annex A1and Annex A2.)

10.9Divide the net value found in10.8by the measured width of the particular specimen to obtain the impact resistance under the notch in J/m(ft·lbf/in.).If the optional units of kJ/m2(ft·lbf/in.2)are used,divide the net value found in10.8by the measured width and depth under the notch of the particular specimen to obtain the impact strength.The term,“depth under the notch,”is graphically represented by Dimension A in Fig.

6.Consequently,the cross-sectional area(width times depth under the notch)will need to be reported.(See Appendix X4.)

10.10Calculate the average Izod impact resistance of the group of specimens.However,only values of specimens having the same nominal width and type of break may be averaged.Values obtained from specimens that did not break in the manner speci?ed in5.8shall not be included in the average. Also calculate the standard deviation of the group of values.

11.Report

11.1Report the following information:

11.1.1The test method used(Test Method A,C,D,or E), 11.1.2Complete identi?cation of the material tested,includ-ing type source,manufacturer’s code number,and previous history,

11.1.3A statement of how the specimens were prepared,the testing conditions used,the number of hours the specimens were conditioned after notching,and for sheet materials,the direction of testing with respect to anisotropy,if any,

11.1.4The capacity of the pendulum in joules,or foot pound-force,or inch pound-force,

11.1.5The width and depth under the notch of each speci-men tested,

11.1.6The total number of specimens tested per sample of material,

11.1.7The type of failure(see5.8),

11.1.8The impact resistance must be reported in J/m (ft·lbf/in.);the optional units of kJ/m2(ft·lbf/in.2)may also be required(see10.9),

11.1.9The number of those specimens that resulted in failures which conforms to each of the requirement categories in5.8,

11.1.10The average impact resistance and standard devia-tion(in J/m(ft·lbf/in.))for those specimens in each failure category,except non-break as presented in5.8.Optional units (kJ/m2(ft·lbf/in.2))may also need to be reported(see Appendix X4),and

11.1.11The percent of specimens failing in each category suffixed by the corresponding letter code from5.8.

TEST METHOD C—CANTILEVER BEAM TEST FOR MATERIALS OF LESS THAN27J/m(0.5ft·lbf/in.) 12.Apparatus

12.1The apparatus shall be the same as speci?ed in Section 6.13.Test Specimens

13.1The test specimens shall be the same as speci?ed in Section7.

14.Notching Test Specimens

14.1Notching test specimens shall be the same as speci?ed in Section8.

15.Conditioning

15.1Specimen conditioning and test environment shall be in accordance with Section9.

16.Procedure

16.1The procedure shall be the same as in Section10with the addition of a procedure for estimating the energy to toss the broken specimen part.

16.1.1Make an estimate of the magnitude of the energy to toss each different type of material and each different specimen size(width).This is done by repositioning the free end of the broken specimen on the clamped portion and striking it a second time with the pendulum released in such a way as to impart to the specimen approximately the same velocity it had attained during the test.This is done by releasing the pendulum from a height corresponding to that to which it rose following the breakage of the test specimen.The energy to toss is then considered to be the difference between the reading previously described and the free swing reading obtained from this height.

A reproducible method of starting the pendulum from the proper height must be devised.

17.Report

17.1Report the following information:

17.1.1Same as11.1.1,

17.1.2Same as11.1.2,

17.1.3Same as11.1.3,

17.1.4Same as11.1.4,

17.1.5Same as11.1.5,

17.1.6Same as11.1.6,

17.1.7The average reversed notch impact resistance,J/m (ft·lbf/in.)(see5.8for failure categories),

17.1.8Same as11.1.8,

17.1.9Same as11.1.9,

17.1.10Same as11.1.10,and

17.1.11Same as11.1.11.

17.1.12The estimated toss correction,expressed in terms of joule(J)or foot pound-force(ft·lbf).

17.1.13The difference between the Izod impact energy and the toss correction energy is the net Izod energy.This value is divided by the specimen width(at the base of notch)to obtain the net Izod impact resistance for the report.

TEST METHOD D—NOTCH RADIUS SENSITIVITY

TEST

18.Apparatus

18.1The apparatus shall be the same as speci?ed in Section 6

.

19.Test Specimens

19.1The test specimens shall be the same as speci?ed in Section7.All specimens must be of the same nominal width, preferably6.35-mm(0.25-in.).

20.Notching Test Specimens

20.1Notching shall be done as speci?ed in Section8and Fig.6,except those ten specimens shall be notched with a radius of0.25mm(0.010in.)and ten specimens with a radius of1.0mm(0.040in.).

21.Conditioning

21.1Specimen conditioning and test environment shall be in accordance with Section9.

22.Procedure

22.1Proceed in accordance with Section10,testing ten specimens of each notch radius.

22.2The average impact resistance of each group shall be calculated,except that within each group the type of break must be homogeneously C,H,C and H,or P.

22.3If the specimens with the0.25-mm(0.010-in.)radius notch do not break,the test is not applicable.

22.4If any of ten specimens tested with the 1.0-mm (0.040-in.)radius notch fail as in category NB,non-break,the notch sensitivity procedure cannot be used without obtaining additional data.A new set of specimens should be prepared from the same sample,using a0.50-mm(0.020-in.)notch radius and the procedure of22.1and22.2repeated.

23.Calculation

23.1Calculate the slope of the line connecting the values for impact resistance for0.25and1.0-mm notch radii or(0.010 and0.040-in.notch radii)by the equation presented as follows. (If a0.500-mm(0.020-in.)notch radius is substituted,adjust the calculation accordingly.)

b5~E22E1!/~R22R1!

where:

E2=average impact resistance for the larger notch,J/m of notch,

E1=average impact resistance for the smaller notch,J/m of notch,

R2=radius of the larger notch,mm,and

R1=radius of the smaller notch,mm.

Example:

E1.05330.95J/m;E0.255138.78J/m

b5~330.952138.78J/m!/~1.0020.25mm!

b5192.17J/m0.75mm

5256.23J/m

of notch per mm of radius

24.Report

24.1Report the following information:

24.1.1Same as11.1.1,

24.1.2Same as11.1.2,

24.1.3Same as11.1.3,

24.1.4Same as11.1.4,

24.1.5Same as11.1.5,

24.1.6Same as11.1.6,

24.1.7The average reversed notch impact resistance,in J/m (ft·lbf/in.)(see5.8for failure categories),

24.1.8Same as11.1.8,

24.1.9Same as11.1.9,

24.1.10Same as11.1.10,and

24.1.11Same as11.1.11.

24.1.12Report the average value of b with its units,and the average Izod impact resistance for a0.25-mm(0.010-in.) notch.

TEST METHOD E—CANTILEVER BEAM REVERSED

NOTCH TEST

25.Apparatus

25.1The apparatus shall be the same as speci?ed in Section 6.

26.Test Specimens

26.1The test specimen shall be the same as speci?ed in Section7.

27.Notching Test Specimens

27.1Notch the test specimens in accordance with Section8.

28.Conditioning

28.1Specimen conditioning and test environment shall be in accordance with Section9.

29.Procedure

29.1Proceed in accordance with Section10,except clamp the specimen so that the striker impacts it on the face opposite the notch,hence subjecting the notch to compressive rather than tensile stresses during impact(see Fig.2and Note22, Note23,and Note24).

N OTE22—The reversed notch test employs a standard0.25-mm(0.010-in.)notch specimen to provide an indication of unnotched impact https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,e of the reversed notch test obviates the need for machining unnotched specimens to the required10.260.05-mm(0.40060.002-in.) depth before testing and provides the same convenience of specimen mounting as the standard notch tests(Test Methods A and C).

N OTE23—Results obtained by the reversed notch test may not always agree with those obtained on unnotched bars that have been machined to the10.2-mm(0.400-in.)depth requirement.For some materials,the effects arising from the difference in the clamped masses of the two specimen types during test,and those attributable to a possible difference in toss energies ascribed to the broken ends of the respective specimens, may contribute signi?cantly to a disparity in test results.

N OTE24—Where materials are suspected of anisotropy,due to molding or other fabricating in?uences,notch reversed notch specimens on the face opposite to that used for the standard Izod test;that is,present the same face to the impact blow.

30.Report

30.1Report the following information:

30.1.1Same as11.1.1,

30.1.2Same as11.1.2,

30.1.3Same as11.1.3,

30.1.4Same as11.1.4

,

30.1.5Same as11.1.5,

30.1.6Same as11.1.6,

30.1.7The average reversed notch impact resistance,J/m (ft·lbf/in.)(see5.8for failure categories),

30.1.8Same as11.1.8,

30.1.9Same as11.1.9,

30.1.10Same as11.1.10,and

30.1.11Same as11.1.11.

31.Precision and Bias

31.1Table1and Table2are based on a round robin in accordance with Practice E691.For each material,all the test bars were prepared at one source,except for notching.Each participating laboratory notched the bars that they tested.Table 1and Table2are presented on the basis of a test result being the average for?ve specimens.In the round robin each laboratory tested,on average,nine specimens of each material.

31.2Table3is based on a round robin5involving?ve materials tested by seven laboratories.For each material,all the samples were prepared at one source,and the individual specimens were all notched at the same laboratory.Table3is presented on the basis of a test result being the average for?ve specimens.In the round robin,each laboratory tested ten specimens of each material.

31.3Concept of I r and I R—If S r and S R have been calculated from a large enough body of data,and for test results that were averages from testing?ve specimens.(Warning—The follow-ing explanations of I r and I R(see31.3-31.3.3)are only intended to present a meaningful way of considering the precision of this test method.The data in Tables1-3should not be rigorously applied to acceptance or rejection of material,as those data are speci?c to the round robin and may not be representative of other lots,conditions,materials,or https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,ers of this test method should apply the principles outlined in Practice E691to generate data speci?c to their laboratory and materials, or between speci?c laboratories.The principles of31.3-31.3.3 would then be valid for such data.)

31.3.1Repeatability,I r(Comparing Two Test Results for the Same Material,Obtained by the Same Operator Using the Same Equipment on the Same Day)—The two test results should be judged not equivalent if they differ by more than the

I r value for that material.

31.3.2Reproducibility,I R(Comparing Two Test Results for the Same Material,Obtained by Different Operators Using Different Equipment on Different Days)—The two test results should be judged not equivalent if they differ by more than the

I R value for that material.

31.3.3Any judgment in accordance with31.3.1and31.3.2 would have an approximate95%(0.95)probability of being correct.

31.4Bias—There is no recognized standards by which to estimate bias of these test methods.

N OTE25—Numerous changes have occurred since the collection of the original round-robin data in1973.Consequently,a new task group has been formed to evaluate a precision and bias statement for the latest revision of these test methods.

32.Keywords

32.1impact resistance;Izod impact;notch sensitivity; notched specimen;reverse notch impact

N OTE2—See Footnote10.

Material Average S r A S R B I r C I R D

Number of Laboratories

Phenolic0.57(30.4)0.024(1.3)0.076(4.1)0.06(3.2)0.21(11.2)19 Acetal 1.45(77.4)0.075(4.0)0.604(32.3)0.21(11.2) 1.70(90.8)9 Reinforced nylon 1.98(105.7)0.083(4.4)0.245(13.1)0.23(12.3)0.69(36.8)15 Polypropylene 2.66(142.0)0.154(8.2)0.573(30.6)0.43(23.0) 1.62(86.5)24 ABS10.80(576.7)0.136(7.3)0.585(31.2)0.38(20.3) 1.65(88.1)25 Polycarbonate16.40(875.8)0.295(15.8) 1.056(56.4)0.83(44.3) 2.98(159.1)25

A S

r =within-laboratory standard deviation of the average.

B S

R =between-laboratories standard deviation of the average.

C I

r =2.83S r.

D I

R =2.83S R

.

ANNEXES

(Mandatory Information)

A1.INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A WINDAGE AND FRICTION CORRECTION CHART

A1.1The construction and use of the chart herein described is based upon the assumption that the friction and windage losses are proportional to the angle through which these loss torques are applied to the pendulum.Fig.A1.1shows the assumed energy loss versus the angle of the pendulum position during the pendulum swing.The correction chart to be de-scribed is principally the left half of Fig.A1.1.The windage and friction correction charts should be available from com-mercial testing machine manufacturers.The energy losses designated as A and B are described in 10.3.

A1.2Start the construction of the correction chart (see Fig.A1.2)by laying off to some convenient linear scale on the abscissa of a graph the angle of pendulum position for the

portion of the swing beyond the free hanging position.For convenience,place the free hanging reference point on the right end of the abscissa with the angular displacement increasing linearly to the left.The abscissa is referred to as Scale C.Although angular displacement is the quantity to be represented linearly on the abscissa,this displacement is more conveniently expressed in terms of indicated energy read from

N OTE 2—See Footnote 10.

Material Average S r A S R B I r C I R D Number of Laboratories

Phenolic

0.45(24.0)

0.038(2.0)

0.129(6.9)

0.10(5.3)

0.36(19.2)

15

A S r =within-laboratory standard deviation of the average.

B

S R =between-laboratories standard deviation of the average.C

I r =2.83S r .D

I R =2.83S R .

TABLE 3Precision Data,Test Method E—Reversed Notch Izod

N OTE 1—Values in ft·lbf/in.of width (J/m of width).N OTE 2—See Footnote 8.

Material

Average S r A

S R B I r C

I R D

Acrylic sheet,unmodi?ed

3.02(161.3)0.243(13.0)0.525(28.0)0.68(36.3)0.71(37.9)Premix molding compounds laminate 6.11(326.3)0.767(41.0)0.786(42.0) 2.17(115.9) 2.22(118.5)acrylic,injection molded 10.33(551.6)0.878(46.9) 1.276(68.1) 2.49(133.0) 3.61(192.8)compound (SMC)laminate 11.00(587.4)0.719(38.4)0.785(41.9) 2.03(108.4) 2.22(118.5)Preformed mat laminate

19.43(1037.6)

0.960

(51.3)

1.618

(86.4)

2.72(145.2)

4.58(244.6)

A S r =within-laboratory standard deviation of the average.

B

S R =between-laboratories standard deviation of the average.C

I r =2.83S r .D

I R =2.83S R

.

FIG.A1.1Method of Construction of a Windage and Friction

Correction

Chart

FIG.A1.2Sample Windage and Friction Correction

Chart

the machine dial.This yields a nonlinear Scale C with indicated pendulum energy increasing to the right.

A1.3On the right-hand ordinate lay off a linear Scale B starting with zero at the bottom and stopping at the maximum expected pendulum friction and windage value at the top.

A1.4On the left ordinate construct a linear Scale D ranging from zero at the bottom to1.2times the maximum ordinate value appearing on Scale B,but make the scale twice the scale used in the construction of Scale B.

A1.5Adjoining Scale D draw a curve OA that is the focus of points whose coordinates have equal values of energy correction on Scale D and indicated energy on Scale C.This curve is referred to as Scale A and utilizes the same divisions and numbering system as the adjoining Scale D.

A1.6Instructions for Using Chart:

A1.6.1Locate and mark on Scale A the reading A obtained from the free swing of the pendulum with the pointer prepo-sitioned in the free hanging or maximum indicated energy position on the dial.

A1.6.2Locate and mark on Scale B the reading B obtained after several free swings with the pointer pushed up close to the zero indicated energy position of the dial by the pendulum in accordance with instructions in10.3.

A1.6.3Connect the two points thus obtained by a straight line.

A1.6.4From the indicated impact energy on Scale C project up to the constructed line and across to the left to obtain the correction for windage and friction from Scale D.

A1.6.5Subtract this correction from the indicated impact reading to obtain the energy delivered to the specimen.

A2.PROCEDURE FOR THE CALCULATION OF WINDAGE AND FRICTION CORRECTION

A2.1The procedure for the calculation of the windage and friction correction in this annex is based on the equations developed by derivation in Appendix X3.This procedure can be used as a substitute for the graphical procedure described in Annex A1and is applicable to small electronic calculator and computer analysis.

A2.2Calculate L,the distance from the axis of support to the center of percussion as indicated in6.3.(It is assumed here that the center of percussion is approximately the same as the center of gravity.)

A2.3Measure the maximum height,h M,of the center of percussion(center of gravity)of the pendulum at the start of the test as indicated in X2.16.

A2.4Measure and record the energy correction,E A,for windage of the pendulum plus friction in the dial,as deter-mined with the?rst swing of the pendulum with no specimen in the testing device.This correction must be read on the energy scale,E M,appropriate for the pendulum used.

A2.5Without resetting the position of the indicator ob-tained in A2.4,measure the energy correction,E B,for pendu-lum windage after two additional releases of the pendulum with no specimen in the testing device.

A2.6Calculate b max as follows:

b max5cos21$12[~h M/L!~12E A/E M!#%

where:

E A=energy correction for windage of pendulum plus

friction in dial,J(ft·lbf),

E M=full-scale reading for pendulum used,J(ft·lbf),

L=distance from fulcrum to center of gravity of pendulum,m(ft),

h M=maximum height of center of gravity of pendulum

at start of test,m(ft),and

b max=maximum angle pendulum will travel with one

swing of the pendulum.

A2.7Measure specimen breaking energy,E s,J(ft·lbf).

A2.8Calculate b for specimen measurement E s as:

b5cos21$12[~h M/L!~12E s/E M!#%

where:

b=angle pendulum travels for a given specimen,and

E s=dial reading breaking energy for a specimen,J(ft·lbf). A2.9Calculate total correction energy,E TC,as:

E TC5~E A2~E B/2!!~b/b max!1~E B/2!

where:

E TC=total correction energy for the breaking energy,E s,

of a specimen,J(ft·lbf),and

E B=energy correction for windage of the pendulum,J

(ft·lbf).

A2.10Calculate the impact resistance using the following formula:

I s5~E s2E TC!/t

where:

I s=impact resistance of specimen,J/m(ft·lbf/in.)of width,

and

t=width of specimen or width of notch,m

(in.).

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1.PROCEDURE FOR THE INSPECTION AND VERIFICATION OF NOTCH X1.1The purpose of this procedure is to describe the

microscopic method to be used for determining the radius and

angle of the notch.These measurements could also be made

using a comparator if available.

N OTE X1.1—The notch shall have a radius of0.2560.05mm(0.010

60.002in.)and an angle of4561°.

X1.2Apparatus:

X1.2.1Optical Device with minimum magni?cation of

603,Filar glass scale and camera attachment.

X1.2.2Transparent Template,(will be developed in this

procedure).

X1.2.3Ruler.

X1.2.4Compass.

X1.2.5Plastic45°–45°–90°Drafting Set Squares(Tri-

angles).

X1.3A transparent template must be developed for each

magni?cation and for each microscope used.It is preferable

that each laboratory standardize on one microscope and one

magni?cation.It is not necessary for each laboratory to use the

same magni?cation because each microscope and camera

combination has somewhat different blowup ratios.

X1.3.1Set the magni?cation of the optical device at a

suitable magni?cation with a minimum magni?cation of603.

X1.3.2Place the Filar glass slide on the microscope plat-

form.Focus the microscope so the most distinct image of the

Filar scale is visible.

X1.3.3Take a photograph of the Filar scale(see Fig.X1.1).

X1.3.4Create a template similar to that shown in Fig.X1.2.

X1.3.4.1Find the approximate center of the piece of paper.

X1.3.4.2Draw a set of perpendicular coordinates through

the center point.

X1.3.4.3Draw a family of concentric circles that are spaced

according to the dimensions of the Filar scale.

X1.3.4.4This is accomplished by?rst setting a mechanical compass at a distance of0.1mm(0.004in.)as referenced by the magni?ed photograph of the Filar eyepiece.Subsequent circles shall be spaced0.02mm apart(0.001in.),as rings with the outer ring being0.4mm(0.016in.)from the center.

X1.3.5Photocopy the paper with the concentric circles to make a transparent template of the concentric circles.

X1.3.6Construct Fig.X1.3by taking a second piece of paper and?nd it’s approximate center and mark this point. Draw one line through this center https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,bel this line zero degree(0°).Draw a second line perpendicular to the?rst line through this center https://www.wendangku.net/doc/292551366.html,bel this line“90°.”From the center draw a line that is44degrees relative to the“0°.”Label the line “44°.”Draw another line at46°.Label the line“46°.”

X1.4Place a microscope glass slide on the microscope platform.Place the notched specimen on top of the slide.Focus the microscope.Move the specimen around using the platform adjusting knobs until the specimen’s notch is centered and near the bottom of the viewing area.Take a picture of the notch. X1.4.1Determination of Notching Radius(see Fig.X1.4): X1.4.1.1Place the picture on a sheet of paper.Position the picture so that bottom of the notch in the picture faces downwards and is about64mm(2.5in.)from the bottom of the paper.Tape the picture down to the paper.

X1.4.1.2Draw two lines along the sides of the notch projecting down to a point where they intersect below Notch Point I(see Fig.X1.4).

X1.4.1.3Open the compass to about51mm(2in.).Using Point I as a reference,draw two arcs intersecting both sides of the notch(see Fig.X1.4).These intersections are called1a and 1b.

X1.4.1.4Close the compass to about38mm(1.5in.).Using Point1a as the reference point draw an arc(2a)above the notch,draw a second arc(2b)that intersects with arc2a

at N OTE1—1003reference.

N OTE2—0.1mm major scale;0.01mm minor scale.

FIG.X1.1Filar

Scale

Point J.Draw a line between I and J .This establishes the centerline of the notch (see Fig.X1.4).

X1.4.1.5Place the transparent template on top of the picture and align the center of the concentric circles with the drawn centerline of the notch (see Fig.X1.4).

X1.4.1.6Slide the template down the centerline of the notch until one concentric circle touches both sides of the notch.

Record the radius of the notch and compare it against the ASTM limits of 0.2to 0.3mm (0.008to 0.012in.).

X1.4.1.7Examine the notch to ensure that there are no ?at spots along the measured radius.

X1.4.2Determination of Notch Angle :

X1.4.2.1Place transparent template for determining notch angle (see Fig.X1.3)on top of the photograph attached to the sheet of paper.Rotate the picture so that the notch tip is pointed towards you.Position the center point of the template on top of Point I established in 0°axis of the template with the right side straight portion of the notch.Check the left side straight portion of the notch to ensure that this portion falls between the 44and 46°degree lines.If not,replace the blade.

X1.5A picture of a notch shall be taken at least every 500notches or if a control sample gives a value outside its three-sigma limits for that test.

X1.6If the notch in the control specimen is not within the requirements,a picture of the notching blade should be taken and analyzed by the same procedure used for the specimen notch.If the notching blade does not meet ASTM requirements or shows damage,it should be replaced with a new blade which has been checked for proper dimensions.

X1.7It is possible that the notching cutter may have the correct dimensions but does not cut the correct notch in

the

N OTE 1—Magni?cation =1003.

FIG.X1.2Example of Transparent Template for Determining

Radius of

Notch

FIG.X1.3Example of Transparent Template for Determining

Angle of

Notch

FIG.X1.4Determination of Notching

Radius

specimen.If that occurs it will be necessary to evaluate other

conditions(cutter and feed speeds)to obtain the correct notch

dimension for that material.

X2.CALIBRATION OF PENDULUM-TYPE HAMMER IMPACT MACHINES FOR USE WITH PLASTIC

SPECIMENS

X2.1This calibration procedure applies speci?cally to the Izod impact machine.However,much of this procedure can be applied to the Charpy impact machine as well.

X2.2Locate the impact machine on a sturdy base.It shall not“walk”on the base and the base shall not vibrate appre-ciably.Loss of energy from vibrations will give high readings. It is recommended that the impact tester be bolted to a base having a mass of at least23kg if it is used at capacities higher than2.7J(2ft·lbf).

X2.3Check the level of the machine in both directions in the plane of the base with spirit levels mounted in the base,by a machinist’s level if a satisfactory reference surface is available,or with a plumb bob.The machine should be made level to within tan?10.001in the plane of swing and to within tan?10.002in the plane perpendicular to the swing.

X2.4With a straightedge and a feeler gauge or a depth gauge,check the height of the movable vise jaw relative to the ?xed vise jaw.It must match the height of the?xed vise jaw within0.08mm(0.003in.).

X2.5Contact the machine manufacturer for a procedure to ensure the striker radius is in tolerance(0.8060.20mm)(see 6.3).

X2.6Check the transverse location of the center of the pendulum striking edge that shall be within0.40mm(0.016 in.)of the center of the vise.Readjust the shaft bearings or relocate the vise,or straighten the pendulum shaft as necessary to attain the proper relationship between the two centers.

X2.7Check the pendulum arm for straightness within1.2 mm(0.05in.)with a straightedge or by sighting down the shaft.Allowing the pendulum to slam against the catch sometimes bends the arm especially when high-capacity weights are on the pendulum.

X2.8Insert vertically and center with a locating jig and clamp in the vise a notched machined metal bar12.7-mm (0.500-in.)square,having opposite sides parallel within0.025 mm(0.001in.)and a length of60mm(2.4in.).Check the bar for vertical alignment within tan?10.005in both directions with a small machinist’s level.Shim up the vise,if necessary, to correct for errors in the plane of pendulum swing,using care to preserve solid support for the vise.For errors in the plane perpendicular to the plane of pendulum swing,machine the inside face of the clamp-type locating jig for correct alignment if this type of jig is used.If a blade-type jig is used,use shims or grind the base of the vise to bring the top surface level.

X2.9Insert and clamp the bar described in X2.8in a vertical position in the center of the vise so that the notch in the bar is slightly below the top edge of the vise.Place a thin?lm of oil on the striking edge of the pendulum with an oiled tissue and let the striking edge rest gently against the bar.The striking edge should make contact across the entire width of the bar.If only partial contact is made,examine the vise and pendulum for the cause.If the cause is apparent,make the appropriate correction.If no cause is apparent,remove the striker and shim up or grind its back face to realign the striking edge with the surface of the bar.

X2.10Check the oil line on the face of the bar for horizontal setting of striking edge within tan?10.002with a machinist’s square.

X2.11Without taking the bar of X2.8from the vise of the machine,scratch a thin line at the top edge of the vise on the face opposite the striking face of the bar.Remove the bar from the vise and transfer this line to the striking face,using a machinist’s square.The distance from the striking oil line to the top edge of the vise should be2260.05mm(0.8760.002 in.).Correct with shims or grinding,as necessary,at the bottom of the vise.

X2.12When the pendulum is hanging free in its lowest position,the energy reading must be within0.2%of full scale.

X2.13Insert the bar of X2.8into the vise and clamp it tightly in a vertical position.When the striking edge is held in contact with the bar,the energy reading must be within0.2% of full scale.

X2.14Swing the pendulum to a horizontal position and support it by the striking edge in this position with a vertical bar.Allow the other end of this bar to rest at the center of a load pan on a balanced scale.Subtract the weight of the bar from the total weight to?nd the effective weight of the pendulum.The effective pendulum weight should be within0.4%of the required weight for that pendulum capacity.If weight must be added or removed,take care to balance the added or removed weight without affecting the center of percussion relative to the striking edge.It is not advisable to add weight to the opposite side of the bearing axis from the striking edge to decrease the effective weight of the pendulum since the distributed mass can lead to large energy losses from vibration of the pendulum. X2.15Calculate the effective length of the pendulum arm, or the distance to the center of percussion from the axis of rotation,by the procedure in Note9.The effective length must be within the tolerance stated in6.6

.

X2.16Measure the vertical distance of fall of the pendulum striking edge from its latched height to its lowest point.This distance should be6106 2.0mm(2460.1in.).This measurement may be made by blocking up a level on the top of the vise and measuring the vertical distance from the striking edge to the bottom of the level(top of vise)and subtracting 22.0mm(0.9in.).The vertical falling distance may be adjusted by varying the position of the pendulum latch.

X2.17Notch a standard specimen on one side,parallel to the molding pressure,at32mm(1.25in.)from one end.The depth of the plastic material remaining in the specimen under the notch shall be10.1660.05mm(0.40060.002in.).Use a jig to position the specimen correctly in the vise.When the specimen is clamped in place,the center of the notch should be within0.12mm(0.005in.)of being in line with the top of the ?xed surface of the vise and the specimen should be centered midway within0.40mm(0.016in.)between the sides of the clamping faces.The notched face should be the striking face of the specimen for the Izod test.Under no circumstances during the breaking of the specimen should the top of the specimen touch the pendulum except at the striking edge.

X2.18If a clamping-type locating jig is used,examine the clamping screw in the locating jig.If the thread has a loose?t the specimen may not be correctly positioned and may tend to creep as the screw is tightened.A burred or bent point on the screw may also have the same effect.

X2.19If a pointer and dial mechanism is used to indicate the energy,the pointer friction should be adjusted so that the pointer will just maintain its position anywhere on the scale. The striking pin of the pointer should be securely fastened to the pointer.Friction washers with glazed surfaces should be replaced with new washers.Friction washers should be on either side of the pointer collar.A heavy metal washer should back the last friction washer installed.Pressure on this metal washer is produced by a thin-bent,spring washer and locknuts. If the spring washer is placed next to the?ber friction washer the pointer will tend to vibrate during impact.

X2.20The free-swing reading of the pendulum(without specimen)from the latched height should be less than2.5%of pendulum capacity on the?rst swing.If the reading is higher than this,then the friction in the indicating mechanism is excessive or the bearings are dirty.To clean the bearings,dip them in grease solvent and spin-dry in an air jet.Clean the bearings until they spin freely,or replace them.Oil very lightly with instrument oil before replacing.A reproducible method of starting the pendulum from the proper height must be devised.

X2.21The shaft about which the pendulum rotates shall have no detectable radial play(less than0.05mm(0.002in.)). An endplay of0.25mm(0.010in.)is permissible when a9.8-N (2.2-lbf)axial force is applied in alternate directions.

X2.22The clamping faces of the vise should be parallel in the horizontal and vertical directions within0.025mm(0.001 in.).Inserting the machined square metal bar of X2.7into the vise in a vertical position and clamping until the jaws begin to bind may check parallelism.Any freedom between the metal bar and the clamping surfaces of the jaws of the vise must not exceed the speci?ed tolerance.

X2.23The top edges of the?xed and moveable jaws of the vise shall have a radius of0.2560.12mm(0.01060.005in.). Depending upon whether Test Method A,C,D,or E is used,a stress concentration may be produced as the specimen breaks. Consequently,the top edge of the?xed and moveable jaw needs to be carefully examined.

X2.24If a brittle un?lled or granular-?lled plastic bar such as a general-purpose wood-?our-?lled phenolic material is available,notch and break a set of bars in accordance with these test methods.Examine the surface of the break of each bar in the vise.If the break is?at and smooth across the top surface of the vise,the condition of the machine is excellent. Considerable information regarding the condition of an impact machine can be obtained by examining the broken sections of specimens.No weights should be added to the pendulum for the preceding tests.

X2.25The machine should not be used to indicate more than85%of the energy capacity of the pendulum.Extra weight added to the pendulum will increase available energy of the machine.This weight must be added so as to maintain the center of percussion within the tolerance stated in6.4.Correct effective weight for any range can be calculated as follows:

W5E p/h

where:

W=effective pendulum weight,N(lbf)(see X2.14),

E p=potential or available energy of the machine,J(ft·lbf),

and

h=vertical distance of fall of the pendulum striking edge, m(ft)(see X2.16).

Each4.5N(1lbf)of added effective weight increases the capacity of the machine by2.7J(2ft·lbf).

N OTE X2.1—If the pendulum is designed for use with add-on weight,it is recommended that it be obtained through the equipment

manufacturer.

X3.DERIV ATION OF PENDULUM IMPACT CORRECTION EQUATIONS

X3.1From right triangle distances in Fig.X3.1:

L 2h 5L cos b

(X3.1)

X3.2But the potential energy gain of pendulum E p is:

E p 5hW p g

(X3.2)

X3.3Combining Eq X3.1and Eq X3.2gives the following:

L 2E p /W p g 5L cos b

(X3.3)

X3.4The maximum energy of the pendulum is the potential energy at the start of the test,E M ,or

E M 5h M W p g

(X3.4)

X3.5The potential energy gained by the pendulum,E p ,is related to the absorption of energy of a specimen,E s ,by the following equation:

E M 2E s 5E p

(X3.5)

X3.6Combining Eq X3.3-X3.5gives the following:

~E M 2E s !/E M 5L/h M ~12cos b !

(X3.6)

X3.7Solving Eq X3.6for b gives the following:

b 5cos –1$12[~h M /L !~12E s /E M !#%

(X3.7)

X3.8From Fig.X3.2,the total energy correction E TC is given as:

E TC 5m b 1b

(X3.8)

X3.9But at the zero point of the pendulum potential

energy:E B /25m ~0!1b

(X3.9)or:

b 5E B /2

(X3.10)

X3.10The energy correction,E A ,on the ?rst swing of the pendulum occurs at the maximum pendulum angle,b max .Substituting in Eq X3.8gives the following:

E A 5m b max 1~E B /2!

(X3.11)

X3.11Combining Eq X3.8and Eq X3.11gives the follow-ing:

E TC 5~E A 2~E B /2!!~b /b max !1~E B /2!

(X3.12)

X3.12Nomenclature:b =intercept of total correction energy straight line,E A =energy correction,including both pendulum wind-age plus dial friction,J,

E B =energy correction for pendulum windage only,J,E M =maximum energy of the pendulum (at the start of test),J,

E p =potential energy gain of pendulum from the pendu-lum rest position,J,

E s =uncorrected breaking energy of specimen,J,

E TC =total energy correction for a given breaking energy,E s ,J,

g =acceleration of gravity,m/s 2,

h =distance center of gravity of pendulum rises verti-cally from the rest position of the pendulum,m,h M =maximum height of the center of gravity of the pendulum,m,

m =slope of total correction energy straight line,

L =distance from fulcrum to center of gravity of pen-dulum,m,

W p =weight of pendulum,as determined in X2.14,kg,and

b

=angle of pendulum position from the pendulum rest

position.

FIG.X3.1Swing of Pendulum from Its Rest

Position

FIG.X3.2Total Energy Correction for Pendulum Windage and

Dial Friction as a Function of Pendulum

Position

X4.UNIT CONVERSIONS

X4.1Joules per metre(J/m)cannot be converted directly into kJ/m2.Note that the optional units of kJ/m2(ft·lbf/in.2)may also be required;therefore,the cross-sectional area under the notch must be reported.

X4.2The following examples are approximations:

X4.2.1Example1:

1ft·lbf/39.37in.=1.356J/m

1ft·lbf/in.=(39.37)(1.356)J/m 1ft·lbf/in.=53.4J/m

1ft·lbf/in.=0.0534kJ/m

X4.2.2Example2:

1ft·lbf/1550in.2=1.356J/m2

1ft·lbf/in.2=(1550)(1.356)J/m2 1ft·lbf/in.2=2101J/m2

1ft·lbf/in.2=2.1kJ/m2

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Committee D20has identi?ed the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue, D256-06a′1,that may impact the use of this standard.(May1,2010)

(1)Revised Note6and Note16.(2)Revised Section9.

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旅游与文化 翻译

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四种翻译方法,十种翻译技巧

四种翻译方法 1.直译和意译 所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式——特别指保持原文的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩等。 每一个民族语言都有它自己的词汇、句法结构和表达方法。当原文的思想内容与译文的表达形式有矛盾不宜采用直译法处理时，就应采用意译法。意译要求译文能正确表达原文的内容，但可以不拘泥与原文的形式。（张培基） 应当指出，在再能确切的表达原作思想内容和不违背译文语言规范的条件下，直译有其可取之处，一方面有助于保存原著的格调，另一方面可以进新鲜的表达方法。 Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. When the original coincides or almost tallies with the Chinese language in the sequence of vocabulary, in grammatical structure and rhetorical device, literal translation must be used. Free translation is also called liberal translation, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original.（郭著章） 直译法是指在不违背英语文化的前提下，在英译文中完全保留汉语词语的指称意义，求得内容和形式相符的方法。

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进行全部倒置，原则是使汉语译句安排符合现代汉语论理叙事的一般逻辑顺序。有时倒置法也用于汉译英。如： （1）At this moment, through the wonder of telecommunications, more people are seeing and hearing what we say than on any other occasions in the whole history of the world. 此时此刻，通过现代通信手段的奇迹，看到和听到我们讲话的人比整个世界历史上任何其他这样的场合都要多。（部分倒置） （2）I believe strongly that it is in the interest of my countrymen that Britain should remain an active and energetic member of the European Community. 我坚信，英国依然应该是欧共体中的一个积极的和充满活力的成员，这是符合我国人民利益的。（部分倒置） （3）改革开放以来，中国发生了巨大的变化。 Great changes have taken place in China since the introduction of the reform and opening policy.(全部倒置) 7.倒置法： 在汉语中，定语修饰语和状语修饰语往往位于被修饰语之前；在英语中，许多修饰语常常位于被修饰语之后，因此翻译时往往要把原文的语序颠倒过来。倒置法通常用于英译汉, 即对英语长句按照汉语的习惯表达法进行前后调换，按意群或进行全部倒置，原则是使汉语译句安排符合现代汉语论理叙事的一般逻辑顺序。有时倒置法也用于汉译英。如： （1）At this moment, through the wonder of telecommunications, more people are seeing and hearing what we say than on any other occasions in the whole history of the world.

常用翻译技巧和方法

常用翻译方法和技巧 1. 四种翻译方法 1.1直译和意译 所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式——特别指保持原文的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩等。 每一个民族语言都有它自己的词汇、句法结构和表达方法。当原文的思想内容与译文的表达形式有矛盾不宜采用直译法处理时，就应采用意译法。意译要求译文能正确表达原文的内容，但可以不拘泥与原文的形式。（张培基） 应当指出，在再能确切的表达原作思想内容和不违背译文语言规范的条件下，直译有其可取之处，一方面有助于保存原著的格调，另一方面可以进新鲜的表达方法。 Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. When the original coincides or almost tallies with the Chinese language in the sequence of vocabulary, in grammatical structure and rhetorical device, literal translation must be used. Free translation is also called liberal translation, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original.（郭著章） 直译法是指在不违背英语文化的前提下，在英译文中完全保留汉语词语的指称意义，求得内容和形式相符的方法。 意译是指译者在受到译语社会文化差异的局限时，不得不舍弃原文的字面意义，以求疑问与原文的内容相符和主要语言功能的相似。（陈宏薇） 简单地说，直译指在译文中采用原作的的表达方法，句子结构与原句相似，但也不排除在短语层次进行某些调整。 意译指在译文中舍弃原作的表达方法，另觅同意等效的表达方法，或指对原作的句子结构进行较大的变化或调整。（杨莉藜） Literal translation may be defined as having the following characteristics: 1, literal translation takes sentences as its basic units and the whole text into consideration at the same time in the course of translating. 2, literal translation strives to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech and such main sentence structures or patterns as SV,SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA formulated by Randolph Quirk, one of the authors of the book A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Free translation may be defined as a supplementary means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. And it is adopted only when and where it is really impossible for translators to do literal translation. (Liu Zhongde). 练习： 1. He walked at the head of the funeral procession, and every now and then wiped his crocodile tears with a big handkerchief. 他走在送葬队伍的前头，还不时用一条大手绢擦一擦他的鳄鱼泪。 2. It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good. 对有些人有害的事情可能对另一些人有利。 3. Every dog has his day. 人人皆有得意日。

文化经典选修教材重点翻译(附带重点字词和参考译文)

要求： 1.通读全句，划出采分点（实词、虚词、句式），然后翻译。 2.翻译后，通读自己的译文，检查有无舛漏。 3.这里只是选取了课文里的部分重点句子以帮助大家复习，会考小本里的课外文言文段落还需大家用心温习。 《晋灵公不君》 1.将谏，士季曰：“谏而不入，则莫之继也。会请先，不入，则子继之。” （赵盾）准备进谏，士季说：?（您是正卿，您）去进谏，如果国君不接受，那就没有谁能接着进谏了。我请求先去进谏,假如国君不采纳,那么您再继续进谏。? 2.犹不改。宣子骤谏，公患之，使鉏麑贼之。 (晋灵公)仍旧不改。赵宣子多次进谏。晋灵公很厌恶他，（就）派鉏麑（去）刺杀他。 3.晨往，寝门辟矣，盛服将朝。尚早，坐而假寐。 （鉏麑）清早赶去，看到卧室的门已打开了。(赵宣子)已穿戴整齐准备上朝，由于时间还早，端坐在那里打瞌睡。 4.公嗾夫獒焉。明搏而杀之。盾曰：“弃人用大，虽猛何为！”斗且出。提弥明死之。 晋灵公唤出那条猛犬向赵盾扑去。提弥明徒手搏击猛犬,把它打死了。赵盾说：?不用人而使唤狗,即使凶猛,又顶得了什么??一面搏斗,一面退出宫门.提弥明为赵盾战死（殉难）。 5.初，宣子田于首山，舍于翳桑。 当初，赵宣子在首阳山打猎，在翳桑住了一晚。 6.使尽之，而为之箪食与肉，置诸橐以与之。既而与为公介，倒戟以御公徒，而免之。 （赵盾）要他吃光,并给他预备一筐饭和肉,放在袋子里送给他。不久灵辄做了晋灵公的甲士,却把戟掉过头来抵御灵公手下的人,使赵盾得免于难。 7.对曰：“子为正卿，亡不越竟，反不讨贼，非子而谁？” （太史）回答说:?您是正卿,逃亡没有越过国境,回来后又不声讨叛贼,弑君的不是您又是谁?? 《求谏》 1.朕每闲居静坐，则自内省，恒恐上不称天心，下为百姓所怨。但思正人匡谏，欲令耳目外通，下无怨滞。又比见人来奏事者，多有怖惧，言语致失次第。寻常奏事，情犹如此，况欲谏诤，必当畏犯逆鳞。 我每当无事静坐,就自我反省。常常害怕对上不能使上天称心如意,对下被百姓怨恨。只想得到正直忠诚的人匡救劝谏,好让我的视听能和外边相通,使下面没有积怨。此外近来见到来奏事的人,常显得心怀恐惧,连讲话也变得语无伦次.平时奏事,情况尚且如此,何况要折面谏诤,必然害怕触犯逆鳞. 2.臣闻木从绳则正，后从谏则圣。是故古者圣主必有争臣七人，言而不用，则相继以死。陛下开圣虑，纳刍荛，愚臣处不讳之朝，实愿罄其狂瞽。

高一英语翻译技巧和方法完整版及练习题

高一英语翻译技巧和方法完整版及练习题 一、高中英语翻译 1．高中英语翻译题：Translate the following sentences into English, using the words given in the brackets. 1．我习惯睡前听点轻音乐。(accustomed) 2．将来过怎样的生活取决于你自己。(be up to) 3．没有什么比获准参加太空旅行项目更令人兴奋的了。(than) 4．家长嘱咐孩子别在河边嬉戏，以免遭遇不测。(for fear) 5．虽然现代社会物资丰富，给予消费者更多的选择，但也使不少人变成购物狂。(turn) 【答案】 1．I’m accustomed to listening to some light music before sleep. 2．It’s up to you what kind of life will lead in the future. 3．There is nothing more exciting than being allowed to take part in the space travel programme. 4．Parents ask their kids not to play by the river for fear that something terrible might happen. 5．While modern society, rich in material resources,has given consumers more choice, it turns many of them into crazy shoppers. 【解析】试题分析： 1．翻译这句话的时候，注意词组：be a ccustomed to doing“习惯于做……”。 2．这句话使用了句型：It’s up to you +从句，“做….由某人决定”。这里what kind of life will lead in the future.是主语从句，it是形式主语。 3．这句话使用了There be句型， nothing 后面是形容词做定语，因为是比较的含义用形容词的比较级more exciting，还有词组“被允许做”be allowed to ，以及词组“参加”：take part in 。 4．这句话使用了for fear that 引导目的状语从句，和词组“让某人不要做……”ask sb. not to do. 5．这句话使用了连词While 表示“尽管，虽然”。词组“富含”be rich in ，主句中使用了词组turn…. into …..“将…变成…”。 考点：考查翻译句子 2．高中英语翻译题：翻译句子 1．只有当我们了解了不同的肢体语言我们才可以很好地跟人们交流。(only＋状语从句) ________________________________________________________________________ 2．这就是我们未来的生活。(what引导的名词性从句) ________________________________________________________________________ 【答案】 1． Only when we have mastered the different body languages can we communicate well with them.

文化英语翻译精编版

文化英语翻译 GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-

Unit1 中国丝绸 中国是丝绸的故乡。栽桑、养蚕、缫丝、织绸是中国古代人民的伟大发明。商周时期（前1600——前256）丝绸的生产技术就已发展到相当高的水平。西汉（前206——公元25）时张蹇通西域，把中元与波斯湾、地中海紧密联系起来，开辟了中外交流贸易的新纪元。从此中国的丝绸以其卓越的品质、精美的花色和丰富的文化内涵闻名于世，成为中国文化的象征、东方文明的使者。 Chinese Silk China is the home of silk. Mulberry planting, sericulture, silk reeling and thickening are all great inventions of the ancient Chinese. As early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (1600-BC256BC), the Chinese people’s silk-weaving techniques had reached an extremely high level. During the Western Han Dynasty(206BC-25AD),Zhang Jian ,an outstanding diplomat ,traveled around central Asia and connected China with the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean, opening up a new era of Sino-foreign trade, exchange and communication. From then on, China’s silk became well known for its extraordinary quality, exquisite design and color , and abundant cultural connotations. Hitherto, Chinese silk has been accepted as a symbol of Chinese culture and the emissary of oriental civilization.