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Emergy-based evaluation of peri-urban ecosystem services

Shu-Li Huang*,Yu-Hwa Chen,Fei-Yu Kuo,Szu-Hua Wang

Graduate Institute of Urban Planning,National Taipei University,San Shia237,Taiwan

1.Introduction

Global environmental change has prompted new concerns

about the role of urban areas in global systems(Sanchez-Rodriguez

et al.,2005).The consequences of increased urbanization and

urban sprawl are apparent in many regions worldwide(Vitousek

et al.,1997;Antrop,2000;Seto and Fragkias,2005;Jantz et al.,

2005;Martinuzzi et al.,2007).Urbanization can also be considered

a process of spatial expansion of urban areas by transforming rural

land use into urban land use,which changes the spatial patterns

and ecological functions of landscapes(Antrop,2000).Of the many

impacts of global environmental change,land use change has been

highlighted as a key human-induced effect on ecosystems(Dolman

and Verhagen,2003).Sprawl not only consumes natural and

productive lands by converting forests and agricultural land into

built environments but also fragments,degrades and isolates

remaining natural areas(Robinson et al.,2005).

The transition zones between urban and rural areas,generally

known as peri-urban areas,are vulnerable to increased urban

pressures.Peri-urban areas are not only transition zones,but also

interaction zones between urban and rural activities;the

landscape features of peri-urban areas are subject to rapid

modi?cation by human-induced activities(Douglas,2006).Nota-

bly,peri-urban areas should be considered an extension of a city

rather than an entirely separate area.Their ecological functions

and economic and demographic processes are more or less

integrated with the city.From the perspective of an environmental

planner,peri-urban areas are valuable protected areas,forested

hills,preserved woodlands,prime agricultural lands,important

wetlands,etc.which can provide essential life support services for

urban residents.Globalization-driven changes in peri-urban areas

have directly and indirectly affected the vulnerability of metro-

politan regions.Adverse environmental conditions also affect both

economic growth and urbanization in peri-urban area resulting

from the rapid spatial expansion of urban land use.After the

pioneering Peri-Urban Environmental Change(PU-ECH)project,

implemented by SCOPE,Douglas(2006)summarized areas

perspective for the scienti?c understanding of key issues of

peri-urban https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,nd cover and land use change in peri-

urban areas were placed emphasis for the understanding of

socioeconomic needs in peri-urban areas and their environmental

consequences.

Natural and social science researchers have documented the

effects of conversion of rural to urban land on ecosystem

Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–50

A R T I C L E I N F O

Article history:

Received4March2010

Received in revised form6December2010

Accepted7December2010

Available online5January2011

Keywords:

Ecosystem services

Emergy synthesis

Valuation

Peri-urban

Impact matrix

Land cover change

A B S T R A C T

Peri-urban areas are often characterized by valuable natural environments that provide essential life-

support functions and ecosystem services for urban residents.Global environmental change has raised

concerns over how urbanization and land use and land cover change affect ecosystem services.This

study applied systems ecology theory and ecological energetic analysis to value the worth of natural

environment and ecosystem services to a socioeconomic system.We begin with a general discussion of

peri-urban areas and their ecosystem services.An emergy approach is applied to establish a framework

for evaluating the ecosystem services by identifying systemic roles of each system components.The two-

part framework includes:(1)an emergy evaluation of energetic?ows of ecosystem services;and(2)an

impact matrix to analyze systemic roles of services in the analyzed system.On the basis of the proposed

valuation framework and land cover types in the greater Taipei area,this study analyzed ten ecosystems

to determine how they interact,via energy?ows,to contribute services to human society.By converting

all stocks and?ows into common emergy units,an impact matrix is constructed to analyze the systemic

role of ecosystem components by classifying their status of being active,reactive,critical or indifferent.

The analytical results indicate that the soil component of forest ecosystems,upstream rivers and

agricultural productivity play critical role of ecosystem services in the study region.The effect of land

cover change during1971–2006in the study region on ecosystem services is also analyzed.Finally,the

implications of biophysical valuation of ecosystem service for spatial planning as related to adapting to

global environmental change are discussed.

*Corresponding author.Tel.:+8862267481819x67346;fax:+886286718801.

E-mail address:shuli@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,.tw(S.-L.Huang).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Complexity

j o ur n a l ho m e p a g e:w w w.e l se v i e r.c om/l o ca t e/e c o co m

doi:10.1016/j.ecocom.2010.12.002

functioning and the subsequent effects and on feedback related ecosystem https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,nd use and land cover change in peri-urban areas often change ecosystem services by modifying energy and material?ows.Peri-urban sprawl often impairs the ecological functions needed for providing environmental services.The sprawl landscape is characterized by increased fragmentation,increasing substitution of ecological functions with human functions and highly reduced capacity of ecological functions to support human functions(Alberti et al.,2006).

Cities must depend on the natural services provided by ecosystems beyond city limits.Peri-urban ecosystems are essential for regulating and maintaining ecological processes and life-support services for urban residents.Ecosystem services refer to the bene?ts that human populations derive,directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions(Costanza et al.,1997).Ecosystem services and their values have received increased public attention in recent years.Many classi?cations of ecosystem functions and services have been described in the literature(e.g.Costanza et al., 1997;Daily,1997;de Groot et al.,2002).The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(2005)categorized ecosystem services into provisioning,regulating,cultural,and supporting services.The complex causal chains linking urban land use to environmental change,which in turn affects socioeconomic systems,emphasizes the importance of understanding the dynamics of peri-urban ecosystems and the services they provide to cities.

Adaptation to global environmental change is a great challenge for spatial planners in Taiwan.The rapid economic growth of Taiwan during1970–1980transformed Taiwan from a rural-based economy to an industrialized society.Many previously rural areas now have croplands interspersed with small manufacturing factories and large industrial districts,which are all essential components of the urban economy.On the western coastal plains of Taiwan,peri-urbanization is an increasing pressure on the environment as well as on the ability of planning agencies to counter the problems associated with intensi?ed land use.The existing practice of land management in Taiwan fails to meet the increasing demand for usable knowledge between global environ-mental change and land use.Adequate spatial planning and land use controls to alleviate negative effects and loss of ecosystem services due to global environmental change are only now beginning to receive attention in Taiwan.In land use planning and review of development projects in Taiwan peri-urban areas, the bene?ts of human society from ecosystem services are often not fully taken into account;as a result,productive and valuable landscapes continue to be converted into built-up areas.de Groot (2006)suggested that one reason for the continued unsustainable use of productive landscapes is the under-valuation of the bene?ts of landscapes and their ecosystem functions.Therefore,before developing strategies and policies for planning and managing peri-urban areas in Taiwan,the roles and ecosystem functions of peri-urban areas must be clari?ed from a regional perspective.

The valuation of ecosystem services must encompass a full appreciation of the value of natural and semi-natural environ-ments in terms of their contribution to societal well being.The contributory value of ecosystem services to urban economic activity cannot be properly assessed solely by market prices. Money paid for ecosystem services from urban systems largely goes to human extractors rather than to compensate for the free work of the environmental system.Ecosystem services are generated by the complex natural cycles,driven by solar energy and operate on many temporal and spatial scales(Daily,1997). How can we explain the biophysical values of ecosystem services in peri-urban areas?How have ecosystems and their services changed been affected by peri-urbanization?Finally,how can these services and their changes due to peri-urbanization be evaluated?

To effectively address these issues,this study establishes a framework for a biophysical approach to ecosystem assessment in peri-urban areas using emergy synthesis to evaluate how ecosystem services impact human society(see Section2).The emergy approach used evaluates the energetic?ows of ecosystem services of ten land cover types in peri-urban areas of Taipei (Section3).Section4presents an impact matrix for analyzing the systemic roles of each service by synthesizing the energetic?ows of the ten land cover types assessed.Section5further analyzes and discusses changes in the ecosystem services of Taipei peri-urban area due to land cover change.Conclusions are presented in Section 6along with recommendations for future research.

2.Framework for evaluating ecosystem services

This section establishes a framework for the biophysical valuation of ecosystem services in peri-urban areas.As Fig.1 shows,the framework consists of?ve steps:(1)delineation of the ecosystems to be valued;(2)identi?cation of the services provided by ecosystems;(3)emergy evaluation of ecosystem services;(4)an impact matrix for analyzing systemic roles of services;(5) synthesis of ecosystem services.

2.1.Delineation of the ecosystems to be valued

Valuation requires that the object to be evaluated be clearly speci?ed.In addition to socio-economic values for industrial and housing development or public facilities such as freeways and land ?lls.Peri-urban areas could be sites considered valuable protected areas,forested hills,important ecosystems or prime agricultural lands(Douglas,2006).A systemic analysis initially involves clarifying the geographic,biophysical and socioeconomic char-acteristics of the study region.The ecosystems of the analyzed area may contain many different sub-ecosystems.This study empha-sizes the need for spatial delineation to describe the sub-ecosystems to be evaluated.Satellite images and aerial photos can be used to interpret the spatial distribution of land cover to delineate the boundaries of natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Varying land cover may be related to different ecosystem services. For example,a forest ecosystem is associated with timber and water supply;paddy rice?eld can provide food and recharge ground water.Further,the inventory of natural processes and their land use consequences are useful for projecting urbanization trends and for evaluating changes in ecosystem service due to urbanization.

2.2.Identi?cation of the services provided by ecosystems

Ecosystem services refer to the goods and services provided by the ecosystem to human society.This study classi?es the ecosystem services into four categories based on the categories presented in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(2005): provisioning services(e.g.food,water,timber,and?ber); regulating services(e.g.climate regulating,?ood regulation, disease regulation and water puri?cation);cultural services(e.g. recreational,aesthetic,educational,and spiritual bene?ts);and supporting services(e.g.nutrient cycling,soil formation and photosynthesis).Although ecosystem functions and services in peri-urban areas can be identi?ed and itemized,the function and use of one service may in?uence the availability of other ecosystem functions and services.Therefore,the analysis and assessment of ecosystem services must be approached from a systemic view-point.

To elucidate how a sub-ecosystem,identi?ed in step1, generates services to human society,the?rst task is to diagram the stocks-?ows and interactions between system components of

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–5039

each landscape sub-ecosystems.The subsystems and components within each subsystem are de?ned by the system characteristics of the study region.These subsystems represent the main ecological and socioeconomic aspects of the region.Ecological energetic diagrams developed by Odum (1971,1983,1996)were used to trace energy ?ows between system components to identify ecosystem functions and services that are valuable to the urban system.Each energetic ?ow can be categorized as supporting,provisioning,regulating or cultural ecosystem services.Among the ecosystem services,provision services and regulating services have the closest linkage between ecosystem services and human well-being (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,2005).Inter-and intra-subsystem linkages can be determined via energetic and material

?ows between system components.Intra-linkages between subsystem components can be regarded as supporting services,which are processes for maintaining system viability.Inter-linkages between ecosystems and urban systems can be consid-ered the other three ecosystem services (provisioning,regulating and cultural)which support the physiological requirements of urban systems.

2.3.Emergy evaluation of ecosystem services

Before valuing the ecosystem services identi?ed in the previous steps,they must be assessed in biophysical terms.Determining the intrinsic value of the natural environment in providing ecosystem

Fig.1.Framework of ecosystem valuation.

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

services requires a new accounting system that can assess the contribution of non-market environmental services to the economic system.Emergy synthesis combines principles of General System Theory,thermodynamics and systems ecology to account for the total environmental resources contributed for the generation of a product or a service(Odum,1988).Emergy is de?ned as all the available energy that is used,directly and indirectly, in making a product,expressed in units of one type of energy; transformity is the emergy of one type required to make a unit of energy of another type(Odum,1996).If a product is expressed in mass units the term‘‘speci?c emergy’’can be used instead of transformity.Since solar energy units(solar equivalent joules,sej) are the most commonly applied,the terms solar emergy and solar transformity(sej/J)can be de?ned.Solar transformities have been calculated for a wide variety of energies,resources and commodi-ties(e.g.Brown and Bardi,2001;Brandt-Williams,2002;Campbell et al.,2005;Kangas,2002;Odum,1996,2000;Odum et al.,2000).

After drawing a system diagram,an emergy evaluation table can be developed to quantify the energy content(e.g.joule)or mass of the identi?ed?ows.The energy content or mass can then be multiplied by its solar transformity or speci?c emergy to obtain its emergy in solar emjoules(sej).By converting all energy?ows and physical resources to solar emergy,these values can be used for direct numerical comparison and summing for totaling.Emergy indices,such as the emergy yield ratio,can be calculated by aggregating resource?ows to evaluate process performance and to measure sustainability.

Odum(1988,1996),and Brown and Ulgiati(2004)provide further details on the concept and procedure of emergy synthesis. Theoretical developments in emergy methodologies,as well as, illustrations of the application of emergy evaluation in the assessment of the economic value of resources can be found in publications from the biennial emergy conferences(see Brown et al.,2000,2003,2005,2007).

2.4.Impact matrix for analyzing systemic roles of services

The systemic role of each system component can be identi?ed using an impact matrix.This methodology is contained in the sensitivity model(SM),a widely applied biophysical approach,described by Vester and Hesler(1982).The cross impact analysis represents a system with a set of components,the so-called impact factors,and their mutual interactions.This approach has been used in a variety of applications,including corporate management and rural development(see Lang et al.,2006).With the involvement of local residents,planners,and interest groups,Chan and Huang (2004)applied a sensitivity model to analyze the sustainability of a local community.In this work,an impact matrix was also applied for pattern recognition of the systemic roles of identi?ed variables.

According to Vester(1988),the impact matrix can reveal linkages between system components.Each component de?nes a row and column of the impact matrix.The assessments in a single row indicate the?ows from a component X to the other components, whereas the assessments in a single column indicate the?ows from other components to component X(see Fig.2).By aggregating the emergy?ows to and from each component,the systemic role of each component within the entire system can be classi?ed depending on its‘‘system impact’’:active,passive,critical(ambivalent)or indifferent(buffer)(Wiek and Binder,2005).

The sums of all?ows to all other components(sum of rows=active sum)and sum of in?ows from other components (sum of columns=passive sum)of the impact matrix reveal two systemic characteristics for each component,the‘‘active vs. reactive’’and‘‘critical vs.buffer’’.The sum of rows indicates the activeness of a component,which indicates its in?uences on the other components and thus the whole system.The sum of the columns indicates the passiveness of each component,which indicates how strongly it is in?uenced by other components. Because the?ows between components are all in emergy units,the ‘‘critical vs.indifferent’’can be calculated by summing the active and passive sums of a component to reveal how strongly the component is interconnected with other system components.The higher the total sum(TS)of?ows to and from the component,the more critical it is to the system.The‘‘active vs.reactive’’is calculated by dividing the active sum(AS)by the passive sum(PS) for each component,which reveals whether the component strongly in?uences other components or is prone to external in?uence.If the ratio of‘‘active sum’’to‘‘passive sum’’(Q)is>1,the component has an active role in the system;if it is<1,the component is strongly in?uenced by other components.The

Fig.2.Impact matrix showing interaction between components and indices measuring systemic roles of components.

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–5041

system components can be represented on a system grid (see Fig.9)to indicate the relative impact of each component and to classify the components by their systemic roles in the system (active,reactive,critical,or indifferent).2.5.Synthesis of ecosystem services

After calculating emergy ?ows for the identi?ed ecosystem services and the systemic roles for system components of each sub-ecosystem,overall peri-urban ecosystem services can be synthe-sized.For example,the change in ecosystem services due to land cover change can be discussed.

3.Emergy evaluation of ecosystem services in Taipei-peri-urban areas

In Taiwan,urbanization driven by rapid economic growth since the 1970s has imposed great stress on natural resources and environmental quality,especially in peri-urban areas.Although

many areas have been affected by urban sprawl,this study focused on the greater Taipei area,the most populated and fast growing area of northern Taiwan.The greater Taipei area ranges in altitude from sea level along the west coast to over 2000m in the southern tip of Taiwan (Fig.3).The Taipei Basin,which is situated in the central part of the study area,is surrounded by hill areas where rivers intersect.The North–South Expressways connect major cities and extend toward southern Taiwan along the west coast.Urban land use dominates the Taipei Basin,with urban density decreasing as one moves toward the hill areas.Currently,the City of Taipei has about 2.6million inhabitants.The populations of Taipei County and Taoyuan County are growing rapidly and are becoming more urban.In just 35yr (1971–2006),the population of the greater Taipei area increased 106%,from 4.2million to 8.7million.

The study area spans a gradient of landscape types,from urban centers in the Taipei Basin to rural/agricultural lands to forested hill slope lands.The Taipei peri-urban area also includes a water protection area and water supply facilities,such as the Fei-tsui

Fig.3.Regional context and land use of the greater Taipei area.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,nd cover change during 1971–2006.

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

reservoir and Shihmen reservoir.Recently urban srawl has been most pronounced in the greater Taipei area,as indicated by urban diffusion and competition for low-priced land.For example,urban areas have increased by more than27,634ha(147%)whereas agricultural areas have decreased29,942ha(28%)during1971–2006.A SPOT image was analyzed to develop a digital record of land cover for comparison with a1971map of land cover(Huang et al.,2009).Urban development has increased at lower elevations close to major transportation corridors and urbanized areas (Fig.4).The built-up lands in the study region have spread into previously rural and peri-urban lands to create complex zones with varying rural landscapes,land use,access to public facilities and environmental interfaces with urban areas.The major conse-quences of urban sprawl on these landscapes include the loss of forest land and agricultural land,fragmentation of agricultural ?elds and loss of the rural character of the landscape.

Taipei and its peri-urban areas have widely varying environ-mental https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,ing an Odum energy diagram(Fig.5)a conceptual urban ecological economic system can be presented.In this representation,locally available renewable energy sources power natural ecosystems and human-subsidized agricultural production systems to provide important life-support services to the urban system.Goods and services must be imported from economic system to transform and extract indigenous resources needed for life-support in the urban areas.Based on land use and land cover maps,this study identi?ed ten major peri-urban ecosystems which can generate ecosystem services for urban areas.The natural ecosystem includes forest and riparian wetland. The agricultural production system includes paddy rice?elds,crop lands,orchards,and range farms.Water resources are another important system for generating various ecosystem services for urban areas.Table1summarizes the services that each of these ecosystems might provide.The following section describes the results of our emergy synthesis for evaluating ecosystems services.

3.1.Natural ecosystem areas

The biophysical evaluation of ecosystem services begins with an analysis of energy?ows within the examined system.The conceptual energy system diagram of forests is shown in Fig.6.The

Fig.5.Ecological economic system of the greater Taipei area.

Table1

Ecosystem services of the greater Taipei areas.

Services Ecosystem

Natural ecosystem area Agricultural production area Water resource

Forest Riparian Wetland Paddy rice

?eld Crop

land

Orchard Range

farm

Fallow Aquaculture Upstream Downstream

Provisioning services

Food

Fresh water

Regulating services

Water regulation

Erosion regulation

Water puri?cation and waste treatment

Cultural services

Recreation and ecotourism

Supporting services

Soil formation

Primary production

Nutrient cycling

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–5043

land cover of undeveloped areas in the study region is dominated by mountainous forests,lands which are vital for conserving water resources.Renewable energies in this subsystem include the sun,wind and rain,power associated with the production of forest biomass.Soil nutrients are regenerated from the weathering of rocks and forest debris.Rain water in?ltrating the soil is later discharged as surface water.The forest ecosystem thereby provides the essential services of purifying and conserving water resources.Timber harvesting represents a direct provision of ecosystem service from forest ecosystems.Due to the large and undeveloped characteristics of forest areas,the aesthetic value of forests provides important cultural services to urban residents as well.

The ?ows of energy sources,out?ows and internal processes of forest areas (Fig.6)were used to calculate emergy values for 2006(Table 2).The chemical energy of rain (6.36E20sej/yr)is the major source of renewable emergy in forest areas.A portion of the chemical emergy of rain is absorbed by plants and transpired (1.94E20sej/yr)via photosynthesis.Rather than being consumed directly by humans,some energetic ?ows are needed to sustain ecosystems;such indirect services,or supporting services (Millen-nium Ecosystem Assessment,2005)include water puri?cation,nutrient recycling,soil generation,etc.The emergy evaluation of internal processes includes net primary productivity of forest (1.94E20sej/yr),litter fall,soil formation (3.72E18sej/yr)and water in?ltration (6.44E20sej/yr).Water in?ltration has the highest emergy value of all internal processes and generates a ground water discharge of 5.45E20sej/yr to surface waters.Since timber harvesting is prohibited,no ?ows were recorded.Ecosys-tems also provide aesthetic and cultural values to urban areas,and other than recreational services,are perhaps the most highly valued ecosystem services for cities.Without them,cities would be more stressful environments for urban inhabitants.The forest areas in the study region provide excellent opportunities for recreation such as hiking and biking.The emergy value of cultural services in forest areas is the total emergy in?ows to the system (6.36E20sej/yr).

Another important natural ecosystem in the study region is riparian wetlands.These areas help purify water by absorbing organic matter and associated contaminants.However,wetlands in the study area are relatively small making the emergy ?ows to and from riparian wetlands signi?cantly smaller than that of other natural ecosystems.

Fig.6.Energy diagram of forest ecosystem.

Table 2

Emergy evaluation of forest ecosystem in 2006.Items

Raw data (unit/yr)Transformity (sej/unit)Source

Solar emergy (sej/yr)In?ow energy 1.Sun 8.97E+18J 18.97E+182.Wind 3.02E+17J 1496Odum (1996)

4.51E+203.Typhoon

1.16E+16J 3868Odum (2000),Odum (1996) 4.51E+194.Rain (geopotential) 1.07E+13J 10,488Odum (1996) 1.12E+175.Rain (chemical)

3.49E+16J 18,200Odum (1996) 6.36E+206.Rain (chemical-absorbed) 1.07E+16J 18,200Odum (1996) 1.94E+207.Rock weathering 3.44E+09G 74,000Odum (1996)

2.55E+14Internal processes

8.NPP,total live biomass 1.08E+16J 18,020 1.94E+209.Litterfall

1.04E+16J 18,619

1.94E+2010.Soil formation 3.72E+09G 1.00E+09Odum (1996) 3.72E+1811.In?ltration

2.32E+16J 27,764Odum (1996) 6.44E+20Out?ow energy 12.Surface runoff

1.11E+16J 27,764Odum (1996) 3.07E+2013.Ground water discharge 1.96E+16J 27,764Odum (1996) 5.45E+2014.Soil loss

6.54E+13J 74,000Odum (1996) 4.84E+1815.Harvested timber 0.00E+00

70,035

Tilley (1999)

0.00E+0016.Recreation

6.36E+20

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

3.2.Agricultural production area

The agricultural areas in the greater Taipei area include paddy rice?elds,crop lands,orchards,range farms and fallow lands.Fig.7 presents the energy?ows of a typical agricultural production system,which explicitly incorporates renewable energy,agricul-tural land,crop biomass,soils,in?ows of irrigated water and goods and services.The amount of renewable energies used by the agricultural production area depends on the size of agricultural ?elds.In addition to renewable energy,this human-subsidized production system must use energy and materials(e.g.fertilizer, irrigation water,and labor)to enhance crop production.Food provision is the major ecosystem service offered by agricultural production areas.Since large volumes of irrigated water are required to grow rice,the water contained in the soil can also be used to recharge ground water.Agricultural production in peri-urban areas can also provide an aesthetic value to nearby urban dwellers.

The major crops in the study area are rice and vegetables.Due to excess agricultural production in Taiwan,approximately50%of the agricultural lands in the study area are currently fallow and receive government subsidizes.Table3summarizes the emergy value of ?ows in2006for each of the agricultural production systems in the greater Taipei https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,ing emergy as an enumerative,rice paddy ?elds,crop lands and fallow lands capture most renewable energies.Although the size of range farms is smaller than that of other agricultural?elds,the emergy value of live stock production(1.21E21sej/yr)is higher than that of all crops due to the higher levels of goods and services from the economic system used in livestock production.The emergy values of rice production and vegetable crops are 1.31E20sej/yr and 1.24E20sej/yr,respectively.Paddy rice?elds require more

Fig.7.Energy diagram of agricultural ecosystem.

Table3

Emergy value of agricultural production in2006.

Items Paddy rice?eld

(sej/yr)Cropland

(sej/yr)

Fallow

(sej/yr)

Orchard

(sej/yr)

Range farm

(sej/yr)

Aquaculture

(sej/yr)

Total

(sej/yr)

In?ow energy

1.Sun

2.98E+17 5.99E+17 1.82E+18 1.40E+17 1.46E+16 1.17E+17 2.99E+18

2.Wind 1.50E+19

3.02E+199.15E+197.07E+187.36E+17 5.89E+18 1.50E+20

3.Rain(geopotential) 2.34E+15

4.69E+15 1.42E+16 1.10E+15 1.15E+14 4.58E+14 2.30E+16

4.Rain(chemical) 2.11E+19 4.25E+19 1.29E+209.96E+18 1.04E+188.30E+18 2.12E+20

5.Rain(chemical-absorbed)

6.09E+18 1.22E+19 3.72E+19 3.05E+18 3.17E+17 2.39E+18 6.13E+19

6.Goods and services 4.25E+18 1.30E+20– 2.16E+19 1.20E+19 4.26E+20 5.94E+20

7.Fertilizer 1.89E+16 N 2.65E+15 4.03E+15– 1.89E+15––8.56E+15 P 1.52E+15 5.51E+15– 2.30E+15––9.33E+15 K 1.20E+14 5.67E+14– 2.85E+14––9.72E+14

8.Irrigation 2.05E+20 2.84E+19– 6.65E+18 1.19E+188.89E+18 2.50E+20

9.Irrigation(ground water)7.74E+17 1.05E+17– 2.47E+16– 2.48E+18 3.39E+18 Internal processes

10.In?ltration 1.18E+20––––– 1.18E+20

11.Green manure biomass–– 2.24E+13––– 2.24E+13 Out?ow energy

12.Surface runoff 2.04E+19 4.10E+19 1.24E+209.61E+18 1.00E+18– 1.96E+20

13.Soil loss7.72E+17 1.55E+18 4.71E+18 3.64E+17 3.79E+16–7.43E+18

14.Production 1.31E+20 1.24E+20– 4.40E+19 1.21E+21 5.47E+19 1.56E+21

15.Recreation 2.54E+19 1.73E+20 1.29E+20 3.16E+19 1.31E+19 4.34E+208.06E+20

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–5045

irrigated water (2.05E20sej/yr)than other crops and also function as a source of groundwater recharge (1.18E20sej/yr).The emergy determination of the aesthetic value (cultural service)from agricultural production areas is calculated by summing all emergy in?ows to the system,which accounts to 8.06E20sej/yr.3.3.Water resource

The Tansui River is the major stream network in northern Taiwan.The river ?ows approximately 158.7km from its head-waters in Hsin-Chu County and passing through Taoyuan County,Taipei County and Taipei City before draining into the Taiwan Straits.In the study region,headwater streams are typically small with high velocity due to the steeper gradient of topography.While ?owing downhill,these smaller streams merge to become a larger and slower moving body of water with a slope lower gradient.Although down stream channels have higher stream runoff then upstream channels,the geo-potential energy at each stream con?uence declines (Huang et al.,2007).The Feitsui reservoir and Shihmen reservoir are the major water bodies constructed to ensure a reliable water supply for urban residents.Shihmen reservoir also provides irrigated water for agricultural use in Taoyuan County.To evaluate ecosystem services of surface waters in the study region,this study used the locations of reservoirs as divides marking upstream from downstream watersheds (Fig.8).In addition to surface runoff,upstream channels also receive in?ows from ground water.The impoundment of reservoirs not only provides public water supply,but also generates hydroelec-tricity.In addition to surface runoff and upstream ?ows,downstream channels also receive waste water in?ow from nearby urban areas.Many smaller ponds in downstream areas can store water for irrigation or be used for ?sh production.

Data for various natural processes in the Tansui River Basin (e.g.precipitation and topography)were collected from various statistical and geographical sources to calculate the emergy of stream runoff.Table 4shows the results of the emergy synthesis of surface water in the study region.Ground water discharge from upstream watersheds accounts for 5.45E20sej/yr,while the emergy value of reservoir in?ows is approximately 4.77E20sej/yr.Provision of water supply (1.89E21sej/yr)is the major contribution to emergy out?ow of surface water.Hydroelectricity generation (3.03E20sej/yr)is also an important contributor of emergy to urban areas.

4.Impact matrix for identifying systemic roles of ecosystems This study analyzed the role of each component in providing ecosystem services to urban areas.The previous sections list the services from each ecosystem and their respective emergy ?ows.It is apparent that each ecosystem is interconnected by energy ?ows to and from each system component.This can be visualized using a symmetrical impact matrix (Table 5).Assessments in each row indicate how one component in?uences other components,whereas assessments in each column indicate the in?uence of the other components on it.The components with a high active sum (AS)include upstream rivers,soil nutrients and crop biomass of agricultural production areas,and soil water in forest ecosystems.The upstream rivers,crop biomass and soil water in forest ecosystems also have high passive sums (PS),leading to the highest value for a total sum (TS =AS +PS),which indicates the critical in?uence of these components in the entire system.

Fig.8.Energy diagram of water resources in the greater Taipei area.

Table 4

Emergy evaluation of water resources in 2006.

Raw data (unit/yr)

Transformity (sej/unit)Source

Solar emergy (sej/yr)In?ow energy 1.Ground water

1.96E+16J 27,764Odum (1996) 5.45E+20

2.Runoff (upstream) 1.11E+16J 27,764Odum (1996)

3.07E+203.Runoff (downstream)7.08E+15J 27,764Odum (1996) 1.96E+20

4.Soil loss (upstream) 6.54E+13J 74,000Odum (1996) 4.84E+18

5.Soil loss (downstream) 1.00E+14J 74,000Odum (1996)7.43E+18

6.Waste water

4.37E+12J 676,409

Huang (1992)

2.95E+187.Goods and services 9.76E+07US$ 1.87E+12Huang and Chen (2005) 1.82E+208.Tourist

3.01E+07US$ 1.87E+12Huang and Chen (2005) 5.63E+19Internal processes 9.Reservoir in?ows

1.72E+16J 27,764Odum (1996) 4.77E+2010.Upstream ?ow (geopotential)

2.74E+16J 27,764Odum (1996)7.60E+2011.Upstream ?ow (chemical)8.93E+10J 48,459Odum (1996) 4.33E+15Out?ow energy

12.Hydroelectricity 2.47E+15J 123,000Odum (1996) 3.03E+2013.Water supply 9.74E+15J 194,108Huang (1992) 1.89E+2114.Recreation

1.23E+2115.Fish production 1.29E+10J

2.00E+06Odum (1998) 2.59E+1616.Irrigation

5.16E+15J 48,459Odum (1996) 2.50E+2017.Irrigation (ground water) 1.22E+14J 27,764Odum (1996) 3.39E+1818.River (O.M.)

9.14E+05

48,459

Odum

(1996)

4.43E+10

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

By calculating the activeness and passiveness of each system component,and placing them into a system grid (Fig.9)we can examine the signi?cance of each component within the system.In Fig.9,the horizontal lines represent the arithmetic sum of passiveness while the vertical lines represent the arithmetic sum of activeness.Separating the diagram into four sectors allow examination of the speci?c signi?cance of each component (i.e.,passive,reactive,critical,or indifferent).The bene?t of this visualization of the system analysis results is that the relative roles of each component are revealed (Wiek and Binder,2005).

The forest ecosystem can conserve water resources by storing excess runoff and discharging ground water to surface water.The soil water component (A)thus provides a regulating service on water ?ow and plays a critical role in the entire system.The soil nutrients in the forest ecosystem (B)are an active component because they support biomass production.However,since harvest-ing timber is prohibited,no provisioning service is available from forest biomass (C),and its role is less active.Riparian wetlands ,however,tend to fall in the indifferent sector of the system grid due to their smaller area relative to the other ecosystems.The high active sum and passive sum values of agricultural production system components (G,I)reveal the critical role they play in the provision of ecosystem services.Given the topographic character-istics of the study region,reservoirs are used to designate water resources as upstream and downstream.The upstream rivers (J)provide surface water and hydroelectricity.These rivers are considered the most critical components and have an active role in the entire system.The downstream portion of the surface water (K)tends to receive runoff and discharge from other system and consequently its role is less than that of upstream components.5.Discussion –change in ecosystem services caused by land cover change

Some ecosystem changes result from activities related to the human use of ecosystem services,such as food and water.However,most ecosystem changes in the greater Taipei area are the indirect result of land use and land cover changes.The global drivers of industrial transformation in Taiwan have resulted in land use and land cover change in peri-urban areas.Rapid capital accumulation and the high cost of urban land have led to increased investment in peri-urban areas,but because developers focus on short-returns,environmental degradation is common.The rapid industrial development and urbanization along the highway and expressway corridors of the west coast of Taiwan resulted in the loss and degradation of prime agricultural lands and subsequent environmental impacts,such as water pollution.Changes in land use,utilization of natural resources,and environmental services of peri-urban areas are clearly being driven by a number of https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,petition for land for urban expansion,the promotion of the national industrialization strategy,and the impacts of imported crops on local markets all have played a role in land use change in this region.

Comparing the 2006SPOT image classi?cation with the 1971land cover in the greater Taipei areas clearly shows that urban sprawl has extended from the region’s urban centers to nearby agricultural areas,particularly along major roads (Fig.4)(Huang et al.,2009).Urban planners and decision makers must become aware of the regional changes in ecosystem services that take place as urban areas expand.In particular,the links between socioeco-nomic driving forces,land cover changes,and their environmental impacts must be clearly https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,nd cover change in greater Taipei area has resulted not only from urban sprawl but also from the loss of agricultural land in rural areas.The considerable expansion of built-land between 1971and 2006has a direct impact on energy and material ?ows in peri-urban areas and thus

T a b l e 5I m p a c t m a t r i x o f e c o s y s t e m s e r v i c e s –2006.

F r o m #t o !

F o r e s t e c o s y s t e m

R i p a r i a n w e t l a n d

A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m

W a t e r r e s o u r c e

U r b a n s y s t e m

A c t i v e s u m (A S )

S o i l

w a t e r

S o i l n u t r i e n t

B i o m a s s

S o i l W a t e r

B i o m a s s

S o i l w a t e r

S o i l n u t r i e n t

B i o m a s s

U p s t r e a m

D o w n s t r e a m

G r o u n d w a t e r

R e n e w a b l e e n e r g i e s 6.36E +201.22E +18

2.12E +20

F o r e s t e c o s y s t e m S o i l w a t e r 8.52E +206.44E +20

1.496E +21S o i l n u t r i e n t 1.94E +20

4.84E +18

1.993E +20B i o m a s s

2.55E +14

0.00E +00

2.549E +14

R i p a r i a n w e t l a n d S o i l 5.99E +17

5.991E +17W a t e r 1.97E +17

1.975E +17B i o m a s s 0

A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m S o i l w a t e r 1.96E +201.18E +20

3.143E +20S o i l n u t r i e n t 1.56E +21

7.43E +18

1.572E +21B i o m a s s 1.56E +21

1.564E +21

W a t e r r e s o u r c e U p s t r e a m 2.50E +20

7.60E +20

2.19E +21

3.204E +21D o w n s t r e a m 6.99E +12

1.97E +171.975E +17G r o u n d w a t e r 3.39E +18

3.385E +18U r b a n s y s t e m 1.89E +165.94E +202.39E +202.20E +078.327E +20P a s s i v e s u m (P S )6.36E +202.55E +141.94E +206.99E +121.41E +185.99E +17

4.65E +201.89E +162.16E +211.10E +219.64E +207.62E +203.76E +21T o t a l s u m (T S )2.13E +211.99E +201.94E +20

5.99E +171.61E +185.99E +177.80E +201.57E +213.72E +214.30E +219.64E +207.65E +204.59E +21Q u o t i e n t (A S /P S )2.3530

781965.11.31E -0685673.60.13900.6755

83330.8730.72482.9250.000205

0.0044450.222

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

has consequences on the functions of ecosystem services in adjacent areas.Conversion of productive and valuable landscape usually bene?ts a few private interest groups while the costs are assumed by many stakeholders and future generations (de Groot,2006).An important step for raising the awareness of peri-urban development issues and global environmental change is to analyze the effect of land use and land cover change on ecosystem change in peri-urban areas.

Fig.9.System grids showing systemic role of ecosystem services in the Taipei area.

Table 6

Comparison of systemic roles of different system components between 1971and 2006.Solar emergy (sej/yr)

Active sum (AS)Passive sum (PS)Total sum (TS)Quotient (AS/PS)1971

2006197120061971200619712006Forest ecosystem Soil water 1.104E+21 1.496E+21

4.07E+20 6.36E+20 1.51E+21 2.13E+21 2.714 2.353Soil nutrient 2.365E+20 1.993E+20 2.55E+14 2.55E+14 2.37E+20 1.99E+209.28E+057.82E+05Biomass 7.961E+18 2.549E+14 2.31E+20 1.94E+20 2.39E+20 1.94E+200.0340.000Riparian wetland Soil 2.125E+17

5.991E+17 1.23E+12

6.99E+12 2.12E+17 5.99E+17 1.73E+058.57E+04Water 6.582E+16 1.975E+17 3.06E+17 1.41E+18 3.72E+17 1.61E+180.2150.140Biomass ––

2.12E+17 5.99E+17 2.12E+17 5.99E+17––Agricultural production system Soil water

3.419E+20 3.143E+20 6.26E+20

4.65E+209.68E+207.80E+200.5460.676Soil nutrient 4.511E+21 1.572E+217.45E+16 1.89E+16 4.51E+21 1.57E+21 6.06E+048.33E+04Biomass 4.499E+21 1.564E+219.93E+21 2.16E+21 1.44E+22 3.72E+210.4530.725Water resource Upstream 1.109E+21 3.204E+21 6.73E+20 1.10E+21 1.78E+21 4.30E+21 1.647 2.925Down stream 6.582E+16 1.975E+177.61E+209.64E+207.61E+209.64E+200.0000.000Ground water 8.764E+18 3.385E+18 6.59E+207.62E+20 6.67E+207.65E+200.0130.004Urban Area

5.505E+21

8.327E+20

4.64E+21

3.76E+21

1.01E+22

4.59E+21

1.187

0.222

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity 8(2011)38–50

Table6summarizes the active sum(AS),passive sum(PS),total sum(TS)and quotient(AS/PS)of each ecosystem component during the period of1971–2006.The forest area decreased7%from 2290km2in1971to2125km2in2006.Both the AS(emergy?ows to other components)and PS(emergy received from other components)of the soil nutrients and biomass of the forest ecosystem decreased,which slightly decreased their TS(critical role).However,due to the lower precipitation in1971,the AS of the soil water component in the forest areas,which can discharge ground water to surface water,was higher in2006.The accumulated sediment deposition in downstream riparian areas doubled the size of wetlands areas in2006.This increased the critical role(TS)of riparian wetlands in the study region.The agricultural area in the study region decreased more than400km2 from1100km2in1971to680km2in2006.The AS,PS and TS of all components of the agricultural production areas all decreased considerably.As ecosystem services in the agricultural production areas decreased,their critical role in the study region was reduced. Due to the increasing demand for water supply and hydroelectric-ity,the emergy?ows from upstream rivers(AS)increased.The increases that emergy?ows imported from economic systems for resource exploitation also caused increase in PS,so the systemic role of upstream rivers has become more critical then ever.The increased quotient(AS/PS)of upstream rivers is indicative of their more active role in providing ecosystem services.As for the changing role of urban areas in the overall system,the ecosystem service received by the urban area from other system(PS)was decreased due to peri-urbanization.The provision of goods and services from urban areas to agricultural production areas is decreased due to the loss of agricultural land,which resulted in decreased AS.The quotient(AS/PS)of urban area changed from>1 to<1;thus its role has changed from active to reactive.

Table7summarizes the aggregate emergy?ows of forest ecosystems,riparian wetlands,agricultural production areas,and water resources.Owing to the higher precipitation in2006,all four ecosystems had higher renewable emergy in?ows(R)than in1971. The feedback of emergy?ows from economic systems(F)tends to increase for riparian wetlands and water resources due to the investment of goods and services into these components.The emergy yields(Y)of these components also increased from1971to 2006.Conversely,the loss of agricultural production areas in the study region resulted in decreased emergy?ows from economic systems(F)and the consequent emergy yield(Y).The emergy yield ratio(Y/F)can be seen as an index of the ability of economic investment to generate ecosystem services to the economy;the higher the value,the greater is its ability.The increasing size of wetland areas increased its emergy yield ratio and increased the provision of ecosystem services to human society.Although the role of agricultural production areas diminished(see Table6),the decrease in emergy in?ows from the economic sector(F)improved the emergy yield ratio of agricultural production areas.The contribution of ecosystem services of agricultural production areas from in?ows of renewable emergy increased.The emergy yield ratio of water resources decreased from49.85in1971to5.99in 2006,which indicates that more emergy?ows from the economic system are needed to provide suf?cient ecosystem services for society.

Land use and land cover changes in peri-urban areas are often neglected by both rural and urban administrations.As in most western societies,Taiwan has a land use control system intended to regulate the location and intensity of local development.It is worth mentioning that the local land use control in Taiwan is divided into two systems:one to regulate growth in urban districts and another to regulate growth in rural areas.Within urban planned districts,municipal governments exercise land use controls through strict and in?exible zoning ordinances.In rural areas,all land use density is designated as lower than in urban planned districts.However,land owners can choose from a list of permitted uses should they wish to convert their land to another uses.Spatial planning policies in Taiwan have targeted agricultural and hill slope areas outside designated urban planning boundaries for low density development.This has been done ostensibly to maintain the rural character and to protect the natural environ-ment of these areas while still allowing some low density development to occur.However,designating rural areas for non-urban land use may be ineffective for preserving rural character or for protecting the environment.Agricultural lands converted to built-land and remnant agricultural lands are often fragmented into collections of small parcels,which can have adverse impacts the environment through increased traf?c congestion and increased infrastructure costs.In rapidly transforming landscapes such as the greater Taipei area,planning for a more environmen-tally ef?cient urban agglomeration is an important challenge for urban planning professionals attempting to create a sustainable future.An adequate spatial plan should visualize future landscape changes and model ecosystem responses.The designation of long-term natural and agricultural production areas,combined with policies to encourage increased urban density and limit growth in more rural areas,is urgently needed.Without these long-term and strict enforcements,sprawl is likely to become more wide-spread throughout the country,which would decrease the rural char-acteristics of peri-urban areas with a resulting loss of ecosystem services.

6.Conclusion

Understanding the dynamics of land cover change in peri-urban areas is critical given that urbanization will continue to be one of the major factors impacting these landscapes in the foreseeable future.The main environmental consequences associated with peri-urban land cover change in the greater Taipei area include the conversion of natural ecosystems,loss of prime agricultural lands and changes in hydrological cycle.The problem of valuing ecosystem services in monetary terms is beyond the scope of this study,but the linkages between biophysical aspects of ecosystem services and the monetary value of bene?ts derived from ecosystem services are essential for safeguarding these valuable landscapes.This study presents an approach for evaluating ecosystem services that ful?lls the systemic and biophysical requirements of an appropriate assessment.

Table7

Aggregate emergy?ows of1971and2006.

Solar emergy(sej/yr)Renewable emergy(R)Emergy?ows from

economic system(F)Emergy yield(Y)Emergy yield ratio

(Y/F)

19712006197120061971200619712006

Forest ecosystem 4.07E+20 6.36E+20–– 4.07E+20 6.36E+20––Riparian wetland 3.16E+17 1.44E+189.51E+18 1.11E+199.83E+18 1.25E+19 1.033 1.130 Agricultural production system 2.00E+20 2.12E+20 5.44E+21 5.94E+20 5.64E+218.06E+20 1.037 1.357 Surface water7.87E+20 1.05E+21 1.34E+19 1.82E+208.00E+20 1.23E+2112.293 5.158

S.-L.Huang et al./Ecological Complexity8(2011)38–5049

The results of our emergy synthesis and impact matrix analyses indicate that water resources in upstream watersheds,ground water discharge from forest ecosystems,and soil fertility in agricultural areas play the most critical roles in providing ecosystem services in the study region.The major consequence of land cover change during1971–2006was the decreased provision of ecosystem services from agricultural production areas.The systemic role of agricultural production areas in providing ecosystem services is becoming less critical.

In addition to providing biophysical evaluation of ecosystem services in Taipei peri-urban areas,this study also reinforces the need for effective spatial plans for controlling urban growth while protecting ecosystem function.In rapidly transforming landscapes such as the greater Taipei area,the spatial plan should envision future landscape change and model ecosystem responses.Other-wise,poor planning and control could cause further urban sprawl and loss of ecosystem services.The current non-urban land use control system for rural areas should have a guiding plan or should be integrated with urban planned district into a single planning system to ensure consistent standards for regulating sprawl, fragmentation,loss of rural character,and environmental degra-dation.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Taiwan National Science Council for?nancially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC96–2415–H–305–012–MY3.

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Wiek,A.,Binder,C.,2005.Solution spaces for decision-making–a sustainability assessment tool for city-regions.Environmental Impact Assessment Review25, 589–608.

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4.Imissyou.Imissyou.Imissyou.Evenifletmesaythisonethousandt imes,Iwillnevergettiredofit.? 我想你我想你我想你呀即使让我说一千遍我也永远不会厌倦。?? 5.Lookatthestarsinthesky,that'sallmywishesespecialllyforyou .? 你看到夜空中的星星了么那都是专属于你我的祝福啊。? 6.Yep.I'mwonderingifyouwillgiveallyourselftomewhenIneedyou.? 是的。我在想我需要你的时候你会不会把全部的你托付给我。? 7.Whenyouturnedback,myhearttwitchedpowerfully.NowIknowit'st hefeelingofpain. 当你转过身的时候我的心狠狠的抽动了一下。现在我知道了这个叫作心痛。?

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唯美英文短句。

1.Please don't see me off.The journey I'm walking on alone is lonely and dangerous. 请不要为我送行。我即将独自踏上的旅途是孤独且布满荆棘的。 2.I will always keep my eyes wide open so that I can know everything in your heart. 我会一直睁大眼睛这样的话我就能读出你心底的一切了。

3.I love the way of rain drops falling on the leaves because that is the way you loved me . 我喜欢雨滴落在树叶上的方式因为你也曾经这样爱过我。

4.I miss you. I miss you. I miss you. Even if let me say this one thousand times,I will never get tired of it. 我想你我想你我想你呀即使让我说一千遍我也永远不会厌倦。

5.Look at the stars in the sky,that's all my wishes especiallly for you. 你看到夜空中的星星了么那都是专属于你我的祝福啊。 6.Yep.I'm wondering if you will give all yourself to me when I need you. 是的。我在想我需要你的时候你会不会把全部的你托付给我。

唯美好听的英文句子

1、Happiness can be found even in the darkest of times. 即使在最黑暗的日子里，也能寻到幸福。 2、Hand and catch you fell out of the tears, but not cut the fund us you伸手，接住你眼角垂落的泪滴，却截不住你眼底的悲伤！ 3、Follow your heart, but be quiet for a while first. Learn to trust your heart. 跟着感觉走，静静地。学着去相信自己的内心。 4、First I need your hand ,then forever can begin——我需要牵着你的手，才能告诉你什么是永远 5、Fallen into the trap,for you are too greedy,it's not because of others' cunning.会上当，不是因为别人太狡猾，而是因为自己太贪. 6、Fake friends never betray in front of you. They always do it behind you. 假朋友从不会当面背叛你，都是背后。 7、Fading is true while flowering is past凋谢是真实的,盛开只是一种过去 8、Every time you come to mind, I realize I'm smiling. 每次想到你，我就发现自己是微笑着的。

9、Everything happens for a reason 这个世界，没有偶然。 10、Everyone has problems. Some are just better at hiding them than others. 每个人都有自己的难处，只不过有的人不容易被发觉罢了。 12、I can put the past you're so natural, I think I really feel. 我可以把过往的你说得如此自然，我想我真的释怀了。 13、Be nice to people on the way up, because you'll need them on your way down.向上爬时，对遇到的人好点，因为掉下来时，你还会遇到他们。 14、Be happy. It’s one way of being wise. 做个快乐的人。那是英明智慧的一条路径。 15、As long as it is a comedy, I’d rather cry during the process. 只要是个喜剧结局，过程你让我怎么哭都行。 16、Always listen to your heart because even though it's on your left side, it's always right.总是听从内心的声音。因为即便它长在你的左边，它却总是对的。

唯美英文

I don’t understand why fate brings two people who can’t stay together forever to each other. 我不明白，为什么命运要让两个不可能在一起的人相遇。 I’m proud of my heart. It’s been played, burned, and broken, but it still works. 我为自己的心感到骄傲。它曾受玩弄，曾经心焦，曾遭破碎，却依然鲜活跳动。 If you don’t understand my silence, you will never understand my words.—如果你不懂我的沉默，你也永远不会明白我说的话语。 When life gives you a hundred reasons to cry, show life that you have a thousand reasons to smile.—当生活给你100个伤心的原因，你就还它1000个微笑的理由。 Learn to use the understanding of the vision to see and appreciate each other, in order to opinionated care to pipe each other.—学会用理解的，欣赏的眼光去看对方，而不是以自以为是的关心去管对方。 Whatever with the past has gone, the best is always yet to come.—无论过去发生过什么，你要相信，最好的尚未到来。 If we can only encounter each other rather than stay with each other, then I wish we had never encountered.—如果只是遇见，不能停留，不如不遇见。 There will be a tear that lets you grow in a twinkling.总会有一次流泪，让我们瞬间长大。 You are so lucky, because you can choose to love me or not, but myself only have to choose from loving you or loving you more.—你是幸运的，因为你可以选择爱我或不爱我，而我只能选择爱你还是更爱你。 Sometimes, you just have to pretend that you are happy just to stop everyone from asking you what the hell happened—有时候，你不得不假装很快乐，只是为了不让别人问“你怎么了？”Try to hold the right hand with your left hand, and gave yourself most simple warmth. We should learn to get it by ourselves instead of craving for warmth from others.试着用左手握住右手，给自己最简单的温暖，不再奢求别人的给予，开始学着自己给自己。 Among those people that appear in our life, some are to teach us, some to comfort us, some to share and some to love. 在我们生命中出现的人，一些给我们上课，一些让我们痊愈，有的用来分担分享，有的用来真爱。等翻译：我喜欢你。是一句藏在心里很久的话。你可以不用回复我，但是，我却必须把它告诉你。 I’m proud of my heart. It’s been played, burned, and broken, but it still works. 我为自己的心感到骄傲。它曾受玩弄，曾经心焦，曾遭破碎，却依然鲜活跳动。 I don’t think that when people grow up.Conversely, I think it’s a selecting process, knowing what’s the most important and what’s the least. And then be a simple man.—人的心智成熟是一个逐渐剔除的过程，知道自己最重要的是什么，知道不重要的东西是什么。而后，做一个纯简的人。 Forget all the reason why it won’t work and believe the one reason why it will. ------ 忘掉所有那些“不可能”的借口，去坚持那一个“可能”。 Best way to not get your heart broken, is pretend you don’t have one.—不想伤心最好的办法就是假装自己没心没肺。 Memory is a wonderful thing if you don’t have to deal with the past。回忆本来是非常美好的，只要你能让过去的都过去 I‘d rather love someone I can‘t have than have someone I can‘t Love 。我宁愿爱上一个我不能拥有的人，也不想拥有一个我无法爱上的人。 There is still a long way to go. You may cry, but you have to keep on moving and never stop.前面

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You are a fine + (noun phrase) 你是一个很棒的+(名词短语) #05 What a(n) excellent / outstanding / superb / + (noun phrase) you are! 你真是一个出色/棒/赞的+(名词短语)! 非正式表达： #01 You're great at (verb + ing) 你在...方面很棒(动词ing形式) Wow! You're great at skiing! 哇!你真的很擅长滑雪! #02 Wow, I wish I could (verb) as well as you! 你很擅长(动词+ing) Wow! You're great at skiing! 哇!你真的很擅长滑雪! #03 You're an amazing / awesome / incredible + (noun phrase) 你是一个了不起的/超赞的/不可思议的+(名词短语) You're an awesome student. 你是一个出色的学生。 #04

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唯美英文句子

1.I love three things in this world. Sun, moon and you. Sun for morning, moon for night , and you forever.予独爱世间三物。昼之日，夜之月，汝之永恒。 2.Life has taught us that love does not consist in gazing at each other, but in looking outward together in the same direction. 生活教会我们，爱并不在于长久地凝视，而在于眺望远方同一方向的希望。 3.Life isn't about waiting for the storm to pass, it's about learning to dance in the rain.生活不是等待暴风雨过境，而是学会在雨中跳出最美的舞姿。 4.You know my loneliness is only kept for you, my sweet songs are only sung for you.你可知我百年的孤寂只为你一人守侯，千夜的恋歌只为你一人而唱。 5.If living on the earth is a mission from the lord…living with you is the award of the lord…如果活着，是上帝赋予我最大的使命，那么活者有你，将会是上帝赋予我使命的恩赐…… 6.Do you understand the feeling of missing someone? It is just like that you will spend a long hard time to turn the ice-cold water you have drunk into tears.你知道思念一个人的滋味吗，就像喝了一大杯冰水，然后用很长很长的时间流成热泪。 7.In such a soft and warm season, please accept my sincere blessing and deep concern for you.在这充满温馨的季节里，给你我真挚的祝福及深深的思念。 8.For our ever-lasting friendship, send sincere blessings and warm greetings to my friends whom I miss so much.一份不渝的友谊，执着千万个祝福，给我想念的朋友，温馨的问候。 9.It is graceful grief and sweet sadness to think of you, but in my heart, there is a kind of soft warmth that can’t be expressed with any choice of words.想你，是一种美丽的忧伤的甜蜜的惆怅，心里面，却是一种用任何语言也无法表达的温馨。 10.You and I remains the same in different time, at different places,among different people; time is changing, space is changing and everything is changing except my miss to you!不同的时间，不同的地点，不同的人群，相同的只有你和我；时间在变，空间在变，不变的只有对你无限的思念！ 11.Coffee is lonely without cups just as I am lonely without you.没有杯子……咖啡是寂寞的……没有你……我是孤独的…… 12.My heart beats for you every day. I am inspired by you every minute, and I worry about you every second. It is wonderful to have you in my life.每一天都为你心跳，每一刻都被你感动，每一秒都为你担心。有你的感觉真好。 13.No matter the ending is perfect or not, you cannot disappear from my world.我的世界不允许你的消失,不管结局是否完美. 14.Love is a carefully designed lie.爱情是一个精心设计的谎言. 15.Promises are often like the butterfly, which disappear after beautiful hover.承诺常常很像蝴蝶,美丽的飞盘旋然后不见 16.Fading is true while flowering is past凋谢是真实的,盛开只是一种过去 17.Why I have never catched the happiness? Whenever I want you ,I will be accompanyed by the memory of...为什么幸福总是擦肩而过,偶尔想你的时候….就让….回忆来陪我. 18.Love ,promised between the fingers.Finger rift,twisted in the love爱情…在指缝间承诺指缝….在爱情下交缠. 19.If you weeped for the missing sunset,you would miss all the shining stars如果你为着错过夕阳而哭泣，那么你就要错群星了 20.To feel the flame of dreaming and to feel the moment of dancing,when all the romance is far away,the eternity is always there.感受梦的火焰，感觉飞舞瞬间，当一切浪漫遥远，永恒依然

environmental slogan 英文环保标语

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唯美英语句子

From now on，I will expect nothing, and just take what I get．从现在起，我将不再期待，只珍惜我所拥有的。 Sometimes silence is not happy, just want to put the heart headroom. 有时沉默，不是不快乐，只是想把心净空。 A girl, who seems inattentive and careless, just reserves her gentleness to those who deserve it. 看似没心没肺，大大咧咧的女孩，只不过是把所有的温柔留给值得去爱的人。 Honestly I don't have time to hate people who hate me, because I m too busy loving people who love me. 说实话，我没时间去讨厌那些讨厌我的人，因为我在忙着爱那些爱着我的人。 A smile is the most charming part of a person forever. 微笑永远是一个人身上最好看的东西。 The most painful goodbyes are the ones never said, but the heart already knows it's over. 最痛苦的一种再见是从未说出口，但心里却清楚，一切都已结束。。。 The most precious possession that ever comes to a man in this world is a woman's heart. 在这个世界上，男人最珍贵的财产就是一个女人的心 Just mind your own business. Don't bother yourself about others stuff. 打理好自己的事；不去管别人的事；不操心老天爷的事。 Try your best when you are young. Never regret.趁年轻，努力吧，别让自己太后悔！ Be better than you were yesterday! 让今天的你好过昨天！ Love lives deep in the mind instead of residing in the lips. ?爱情是埋在心灵深处，并不居住在双唇之间。

唯美英文(含中文、图片)

I missed you but I missing you. I missing you but I missed you .I see you but I seeing you . I seeing you but I see you.------明明已经错过你，但我却还在想念你。当我想念你的时候，但我不能再拥有你。明明已经别离，却又再次相遇。当我们再次相遇时，却不得不说再见 ?
Some disappointment is inevitable, but most of the disappointed, because of you overestimate themselves. 有些失望是不可避免的，但大部分的失望，都是因为你高估了自己。 ?
Can I don't have a boyfriend, and don't have money, but I can't do without you 我可以没有男朋友，没有钱，可是我不能没有你 ?
Sometimes I wish I could just fast forward time just to see if in the end it’s all worth it.---有时候，我真希望我能快进时间，这样我就能看看，最终的结果是不是值得。 ?
I love you not for who you are, but for who I am before you. 我爱你不是因为你是谁，而是我在你面前可以是谁。 ?
Guys use the word “friendship” to start a relationship. Girls use the word “friendship” to end it.男人喜欢用“友情”开始一段爱情，女人喜欢用“友情”终结一段爱情。 ?
If one really cares for you,he is able to squeeze time for you.No excuses,no lies,no undeliverable promises. 如果一个人真的足够在乎你，那么他总能挤出时间来陪你，没有借口、谎言，没

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本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！ == 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ == 英文感谢信,合作伙伴篇一：年终感谢信致合作伙伴的感谢信亲爱的合作伙伴：您好！ xxxx有限公司自成立以来，得到了您的大力支持和帮助，值此新春来临之际，我们怀着感恩的心情，向您表示衷心的感谢和美好的祝福！感谢您一直以来对我们的支持与厚爱(来自:WWw. : 英文感谢信,合作伙伴 )，感谢您一路走来给予我们的理解和信任。我们公司秉承“合作、规模、互通、共赢”的宗旨，打造优秀的投融资平台，努力以最高的效率、最出色的表现、规范化的操作赢得最佳的成绩。饮水思源，我们深知，公司取得的每一点进步和成功都离不开您的关注、支持、信任和参与。您的理解和信任是我们进步的最大动力；您的关心和支持是我们成长的不竭源泉。您的每一次参与、每一个建议都让我们激动不已，促使我们不断奋进。新的一年，新的征程。我们将继续以诚心、诚信、专业的态度为您进行投融资服务，努力做到“没有最好，只有更好”。愿您在未来的能够给予我们更多的支持与帮助，提携我们快速的成长和进步！祝您身体健康！阖家幸福！事业兴旺！平安如意！您永远的朋友：xxxxx有限公司 x年x月篇二：致供应商的感谢信尊敬的供应商：您好，怀着感恩的心情，为了感谢您与您的家人一直以来对我们的支持！我公司全体员工向您表示衷心的感谢和美好的祝福！感谢有您，感恩有您！正是您长期以来的支持才成就今天的更美生物！在您的鼎力支持下，我们以优质的

服务和良好的信誉，取得了辉煌的成绩，本公司的业务得到了令人鼓舞的进步，精英团队空前扩大！感谢有你，感恩有您！在当前严峻的经济形势下，今后，我们势必是披荆斩棘、逆流而上，这需要与我们亲密的战友——您携手，以更高的品质要求、更快的产品交期、更好的成本控制、更强的工作配合，更饱满的激情、更旺盛的斗志共创双赢和谐的美好明天！创新伴随着艰辛，喜悦伴随着汗水，精彩只属于过去。展望未来，我们信心百倍。今后也是我们加强合作，快速发展，实现我们共同目标的时候。我们将继续与您相互支持与协作，进一步与您构建互利共赢的合作伙伴关系。在此，我也真诚地期望您能一如既往地对我司给予关注和支持，与我司保持长期的、良好的、更加紧密和深化的合作关系，不断促进我们之间业务的增长，共同获得长足持久的发展。让我们同舟共济，携手共进，乘势而上，共同缔造更加美好的明天！让我们继续并肩携手，用智慧和汗水，共同书写更加绚丽辉煌的诗篇！再次感谢您的帮助和支持，祝您身体健康、万事如意！!贵司生意丰盈、财通四海！事业更上一层楼！广州更美生物科技有限公司 201X年8月27日篇三：致合作伙伴的感谢信尊敬的各位老师，学校部门及各社团组织，尊敬的各位合作伙伴：你们辛苦了！值此新学期开始之际，上海理工大学勤工助学管理中心向您对我部门的一贯信任和支持表示最衷心的感谢！上海理工大学勤工助学管理中心隶属于上海理工大学学生处勤工助学办公室，是校内唯一可以进行经营性活动的学生组织。下设有八大部门：办公室、宣传策划部、校内服务部、市场发展部、学习培训部、家教业务部、财务资产部和文印中心。勤工助学管理中心自成立以来，在广大合作伙伴的支持和帮助下，坚持为全校师生服务的做事原则，得到了同学们的广泛关注和认可。我们深知，这意味着同学们对我们以往表现的肯定，也意味着对我们将来的服务和管理提出更高的要求。合作伙伴对我们的信任和支持，是我们事业的基石，是我们前进的动力。以新学期为契机，我们郑重向您承诺，我们将加倍努力，坚持“为全校师生”，为合作伙伴提供有效、优质的品牌传播服务，与合作伙伴携手同行、共赢发展。我们的团队随时准备为您的品牌建设需求做出更多贡献！

表示赞美常用的英语口语用法(最新)

【篇一】表示赞美常用的英语口语用法 1. It's cool! 很好，很棒! 只要是好事, 你都可以说cool! 例如： -I am going to college this year. -Cool! -I just bought a brand new car. -Cool! 此外，如果别人问你做了某件事了没, 你说做了, 别人就会说cool，例如： -Did you make one copy for me? -Yes. -Cool. -Did you go to watch the football game yesterday? -Yes. -Cool! 总之，cool 这个词是无所不在的, 听到什么好事,，就说cool准没错。 2. It is neat! 太酷了！我们可以这样说，neat是cool的比较级，比cool还再cool一点的就是neat，例如别人说他学钢琴学了十年，像这种事你光用cool形容是不够的，不如就说neat! 人家说，"I've been to Europe several times." 听到这种几乎不可能发生在一般人身上的事, 你也可以说neat! 另外，neat 和cool也有“新奇”的意思，常和stuff这个字连用, 表示一些很新奇又很棒的事物。例如你为了吸引别人的注意就可以说, "Check out those neat stuff!" (看看这些很棒的东西。) 或"I've just bought some cool stuff." (我刚买了一些很棒的东西。) 3. It is righteous! 酷毙了! 这是cool的级了，如果一件事让你无法用neat形容，那就只好用这个词了，有人说他刚环游世界一周回来，你就可以跟他说，"It's righteous!" 4. It's good. 很好。 Good和cool很像，都是听到什么好事时就可以脱口而出，"It's good!" 例如：-I just got an A from that course. -It's good.

口语英文如何称呼哥们儿

中国男人喜欢称呼“兄弟”，“哥们儿”之类的。国外的小伙伴们也是这样。那英文如何称兄道弟呢？ 1. Mate Mate在英语里的意思可多了，它可以当“配偶”、“同事”、“熟人”讲。作为称呼时，通常用在男生们之间，是种比较友好的称呼。例： Got a light, mate? 有火吗，老兄？ 2. Pal 大家对pen pal（笔友）这个词应该不太陌生，pal其实指的就是亲密的小伙伴，跟buddies很相近。但是，如果用在直接称呼某个人时，pal通常包含了一种气恼的情绪在里面。例：Listen, pal, I've had just about enough of your advice. 听着，伙计，你的忠告我听够了！ 3. Dude 看美剧时，你可能常能听到dude这个词。这个称呼备受美国年轻人喜爱，小伙伴们喊起来特别顺口。通常只用于男生之间，当然也不排除被敬为女汉子的个别女童鞋。意思就是“哥们儿”、“老兄”。例：Hey, dude, what's up? 嗨，哥们儿，咋了？ 4. Buddy 复数形式的buddies指的是关系特别要好的男生，这里你千万别想歪了，它跟“好基友”可是两码事。Buddies指的就是“铁哥们儿”、“发小”。但是如果是在口语中称呼buddy，或者bud，一般都是在招呼陌生人，意思是“伙计”、“哥们儿”。是不太有礼貌的那一款。例：Hey, buddy, do you know where Maple Street is? 嗨，伙计，你知道枫树街怎么走吗？ 5. Bro

不用说你也能猜到，bro来自英文单词brother（兄弟），也是北美男生之间拉近关系的一种友好称呼。例：Catch you later, bro. 待会儿见，老兄。更多英语学习方法：企业英语培训https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2217756055.html,/

英语热身小游戏

英语课前小热身 Warm-up ： 1、One two three four one two three four ,clap your hands (1 2 3 4，拍拍手) two two three four,stomp your feet（2 2 3 4 ，跺跺脚） three two three four,nod your head,（3 2 3 4 ，点点头） four two three four,hands on knees.（4 2 3 4 ，小手放到膝盖上） 2、Le t’s count one two ,tie your shoe （伸出手指数数，作系鞋带状） Three four ,touch the floor（伸出手指，蹲下摸地面） Five six ,stir and mix （伸出另一只手数数，作搅拌状） Nine ten ,count again （双手反过来再数一遍） One two three four five six seven eight nine ten (一只手指，一只手指的再数一遍) 3、Clap stomp snap bump clap clap clap （拍拍手） Stomp stomp stomp （跺跺脚） Snap snap snap （打响指） Bump bump bump (打击膝盖)

4、Shake your body（1） shake your shoulders,shua shua shua (上下抖动肩膀) Shake your hands ,clap clap clap （甩甩手，拍三下） Shake your hip ,pia pia pia （扭扭屁股，打三下） Shake your feet ,dong dong dong （抖抖脚，跺三下） 5.Shake your body（2） Shake shake up (胳膊和手全部向上摇摆) Shake shake down （胳膊和手全部向下摇摆） Shake shake shake shake （摇一摇，摇一摇） Let’s turn around （转一圈） Shake shake up (胳膊和手全部向上摇摆) Shake shake down （胳膊和手全部向下摇摆） Shake shake shake shake （摇一摇，摇一摇） Let’s si ng a song （做出唱歌的样子） 6、Finger play one finger ,one finger ,turn turn turn ,turn to a toothbrush ,shua shua shua (两只手各出示一只手指，变成一个牙刷的样子，在嘴边上下刷动) Two finger, two finger ,turn turn turn ,turn to a rabbit ,jump jump jump （两只手各出示两只手指，转一下，变成一个兔子的样子，上下跳）Three finger ,three finger,turn turn turn ,turn to a fork ,cha cha cha （两只手各出示三只手指，转一下，变成一个叉子的样子，上下叉动）