胡壮麟语言学笔记 第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon

3.1 What is word?

1. What is a lexeme?

A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be

distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”

2. What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between

expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.

3. What is an allomorph?

An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.

4. What is a word?

A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete

utterance in speech or writing.

3.1.1 Three senses of “word”

1. A physically definable unit

2. The common factor underlying a set of forms

3. A grammatical unit

3.1.2 Identification of words

1. Stability

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for

rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents

of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the

morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.

2. Relative uninterruptibility

By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between

the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one

allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.

3. A minimum free form

This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”the

latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.

3.1.3 Classification of words

1. Variable and invariable words

In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.

E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those words

such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.

2. Grammatical words and lexical words

Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.

Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,

are lexical words.

3. Closed-class words and open-class words

Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,

pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.

Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and

many adverbs are all open-class items.

4. Word class

This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are

some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.

(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative

marker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get

by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.

(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their

unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists

today tend to define them as a separate word class.

(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for

different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following

conversation, so replaces that I can come.

A: I hope you can come.

B: I hope so.

(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun

acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the

noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:

predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.

3.2 The formation of word

3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology

Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

3.2.2 Types of morphemes

1. Free morpheme and bound morpheme

Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.

Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.

2. Root, affix and stem

A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is

the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to

another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to

which an inflectional affix can be added.

A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total

loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are

removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,

what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be

free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,

conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.

E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form

slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or

combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-

in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a

stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain

a root and a derivational affix.

3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix

Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,

which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.

The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and

derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the

following ways:

(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical

meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve

to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational

affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.

(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach

to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might

not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and

that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.

(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic

factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.

E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is

determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational

affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The

choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk

about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being

clever.”

(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always

word final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can be

prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.

3.2.3 Inflection and word formation

1. Inflection

Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,

which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.

2. Word formation

Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)

and derivational type (derivation).

(1) Compound

Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,

such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,

wedding-ring, etc.

The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal

compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant

of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:

virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed

by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V

+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.

(2) Derivation

Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word

either changed or unchanged.

3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology

1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.

2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of

linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological

factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, the

grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also called

morphonology or morphonemics.

3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the

influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or

“contiguous” assimilation.

4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound

segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,

or different.

3.3 Lexical change

3.3.1 Lexical change proper

1. Invention

Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or

their brand names.

2. Blending

Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the

second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.

3. Abbreviation / clipping

A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or

cutting both the initial parts of the original words.

4. Acronym

Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.

5. Back-formation

Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the

language.

6. Analogical creation

The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.

7. Borrowing

English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and

other languages have all played an active role in this process.

3.3.2 Phonological change

1. Loss

The loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in

utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.

2. Addition

Sounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.

3. Metathesis

Metathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.

Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and

accepted by the speech community.

4. Assimilation

Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”

assimilation.

3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change

1. Morphological change

The form of inflectional affixes may also change.

2. Syntactical change

There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words

3.3.4 Semantic change

1. Broadening

Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.

2. Narrowing

Contrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.

3. Meaning shift

All semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do with

generalization or restriction as mentioned above.

4. Class shift

By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation

is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.

5. Folk etymology

Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the

influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

3.3.5 Orthographic change

Changes can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2f16597718.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2f16597718.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(第二语言和外语教学)【圣才出品】

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the