语言学精华术语概念(英文版)

Linguistics - Terms

Metafuncion: The general roles language plays are termed metafunctions. Language plays three metafunctions: 1. the ideational function, to identify things, to think, or to record info; 2. the interpersonal function, to use it as a medium to communicate in a community; 3. the textual function, to organize message in a logical way; to bring units of language into unity.

Contractive distribution: sounds appearing in the same environment. a. minimal pairs: two words differing by only one sound in the same position (e.g. sip, zip); b. minimal sets: words distinguished by one segment in the same position (e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat). Complementary distribution: allophones that are not found in the same position, but share phonetic features

Free variation: if segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. Segments in free variation are generally dialectal variation (e.g. economics).

Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme. The morpheme can be classified into free morphemes, bound morpheme (inflectional morpheme and derivational morphemes).

Allomorphs: a morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.

(E.g. the prefix：in has four allomorphs as found in the words impossible, immoral, irregular, irresistible.)

Inflectional morphemes: indicating grammatical categories (e.g. indicates case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.) Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called deviation.

Syntagmatic relations: chain relations, supported by TG grammar, regarding language as an abstract system, analyzing its form; It is a method of analyzing sentences by looking into their constituents and generalizing the pattern.

Paradigmatic relations: choice relations, supported by SF grammar, emphasizing the vertical relations in order to explain the realization of the function of language; It focuses on the language in use.

Transitivity: Transitivity is the syntactic structure as representation of experience. The ideational function is realized by the transitivity system of language. It is a type of linguistic process which represents what exists and what is going on around us and

inside us. The three main linguistic processes are termed material processes, relational processes and mental processes.

Mood: The unique contribution by systematic-functional grammar is the observation that only a particular element of syntactic structure, called mood, realizes the interaction between the speaker and hearer.

All purposes in conversations fall into two fundamental categories: giving or demanding. Giving goods-and services is offer; giving information is statement. Demanding g&s is command; demanding information is question.

Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the finite. The subject is the first noun phrase in a statement. The finite is a verbal operator that expresses tense or modal meaning as well as positive or negative form.

Modality: Modality expresses the semantic space between yes and no. It can be categorized into modalization and modulation. Modalization relates to how valid the information is (probability, usuality); Modulation relates to how confident the speaker can be in the eventual success of the speech act (obligation, inclination). Reference: reference is one aspect of meaning and the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. E.g. London refers to the capital of Great Britain. The word dog denotes a kind of domestic animal.

Sense: It is mental representation and the association with something in the speaker/ hear’s mind. E.g. when you hear the expression dog, you will naturally reflect on its features in addition to the kind of animal as the referent of the expression. Homonymy: Homonyms are words which have the same form but different meanings. Homograph: same spelling, different meanings

Homophone: same pronunciation, different meanings

Full Homonym: same spelling and pronunciation, different meanings

Hyponymy: Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion. Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Words like animal are called superordinates. Componential analysis: The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is CA. Advantages: 1. It is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. 2. It reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. 3. It examines the components of senses. The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference is. Limitations: It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicons, merely to words within the same semantic field.

Prototype: The theory of prototype introduces a notion of degree of membership. 1. Some members of a category are typical and central while others are peripheral. 2. There is no clear dividing line between the judgments of two entities. Rather, the one category is gradually merged into the other. 3. Categories are gradable. This approach allows for marginal members. 4. This theory eliminates the dilemma of the traditional conception of category as it postulates that typical members may possess more features than non-typical members.

Deixis: Deixis means “pointing”via language. An expression used by speaker to identify something is called deictic expression. (E.g. “what’s this”. The deictic expression “this” is to indicate something in the immediate context.) Deixis can be put into person deixis (comprising personal pronouns), place deixis (specifying the locations relative to the speech event), time deixis (indicating the time of speaking and hearing) and discourse deixis (an expression that has its reference within the discourse or text).

Anaphoric reference: the reference of a deixis to a preceding expression is technically termed anaphoric reference. E.g. “a boy and a girl are planting a tree, she is holding it and he is shoveling earth”“he,she” is used as anaphoric reference to refer to “a boy and a girl.”

Cataphoric reference: the reversal of the antecedent-anaphora pattern is known as cataphoric reference. E.g. it’s a good idea to have a picnic. It is used as cataphoric reference to refer to “to have a picnic”.

Speech act: actions performed via speaking are called speech acts. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called locutionary act. The act of communication intention through utterance is termed illocutionary act. The act of bringing an effect is known as perlocutionary act. As functions may not correspond to forms, speech acts can be direct and indirect. 1. Direct speech act: corresponding to the structure of an utterance (straightforward)2. Indirect speech act: those in which there is no correspondence between a structure and a function (polite). It takes longer to process on the part of the hearer.

Code model: Communication is achieved by encoding and decoding messages. Inferential model: Illocutions and implicatures are not directly represented by linguistic codes; they must be inferred.

Back-channel signals: People always use indications to indicate that he/she is listening. There are two types of indication: paralinguistic signals such as nodding, gestures, smiles, and other facial expressions; vocal signals, uh-uh, yeah, mmm and so on. These vocal and paralinguistic signals are called back-channel signals.

Variety: the form of a language used by any group pf speakers or used in a particular field

Four types: 1. The standard variety(the form of a language used by the governments and communication media, taught in schools and universities and is mainly or only written form) 2. Regional dialect(a variety of language spoken by people living in an area) 3. Sociolects (forms of languages that characterize the speech of different social classes) 4. Registers (a term referring to “varieties according to use”, vs. the former “according to user”) Three dimensions: field (the purpose and subject-matter of communication); mode (the means by which communication takes place); tenor (the relations between the communicators)

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Language, culture and thought are interdependent. That different people speak differently – that they think differently – that their language offers them different ways of expressing Relativism: Culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the physical world, the social world, and the ideological world. E.g. kinships in different languages. Communicative competence: the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it Four parameters underlining a speakers CC: (1) Whether/to what degree sth is formally possible (good in grammar); (2) Whether/to what degree sth is feasible (acceptability); (3) Whether/to what degree sth is appropriate; (4) Whether/to what degree sth is in fact done (effectiveness).

语言学重点概念总结

Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:

the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include

语言学部分概念解析

Lexical morpheme Lexical morpheme is the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey, e.g., book, desk, house, love, look, long, happy. Since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words Functional morpheme Functional morpheme consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. e.g., and, but, because, if, when, on, above, in, it, the and that. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words. bound morphemes Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g., -s, -er, -ed and –ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are actually affixes. All affixes in English are bound Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. impossible, enlarge. Affixes can also be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. kindness, useless Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes, which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to indicate whether a word is singular or plural, whether it is in the past tense or present tense, and whether it is a possessive or comparative form The most important ways of word formation are COMPOUNDING and DERIV A TION By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound. Compounds have strict patterns. The first element in the compound receives the main stress, but it is generally the second element (the head of the compound) that determines the compound’s new word class. e.g. blackbird Conversion (Class shift/Zero derivation): Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun. Such instances are called conversion. Conversion is a special case of derivation. Instead of adding an affix to a stem, the stem takes a zero form. Conversion is particularly productive in modern English Invention: Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola, etc. Blending: A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. This process is called blending. Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding。smoke + haze = smaze Clipping (Abbreviation): The process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping. That is, abbreviations of longer words may become words。Professor-- prof Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech

语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)

第一节语言的本质 一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features） 1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的 声音，各国不同的表达方式 2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） 3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层 结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） 4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将 来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中 掌握 二、语言的功能（Functions of Language） 1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function 2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 establish and maintain their identity 3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge， naming，and curses 4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句 exclamatory expressions 5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？” “天儿真好啊！”等等 6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如 book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的 “书” 三、语言学的分支 1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic 1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语 言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation， transmission and reception of human sounds， especially isolated sounds 2)音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其 组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 3)形态学 Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words 4)句法学 Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.

英语语言学讲解

《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。

三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。

语言学 重点概念

Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.

对比语言学的定义-起源和发展

对比语言学的定义、起源与发展 对比语言学(Contrastive Linguistics的定义 1、语言学中的比较与对比 比较是人类认识事物、研究事物的一种基本方法，也是语言学研究的一种基本方法。如果说，语言学的根本任务是对语言的某种现象加以阐述的话，那么要对某一语言现象作出阐述，总是需要对这一现象的种种表现加以比较和分析(Harlmann1980:22。因而，按其本质来说，对比语言学也是一种比较,不过是一种具有特定含义的语言学中的比较。下面，先让我们来看看对比语言学的比较，与语言学中其他分支的比较有什么不同，从而使我们能够确定对比语言学在整个语言学中的位置，及其与其他语言学研究的联系。 在进行语言学比较时，根据比较对象的不同，可以沿两条轴线来进行。一方面，可以选择共时或历时的语言现象来进行比较;另一方面，可以选择在某一语言内部或各种语言之间的语言现象来进行比较。这两条轴线的互相交叉，便形成了如下四个象限，这四个象限将语言学研究分成四大类性质和目的不同的比较。

象限I代表了同一语言内部的共时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史发展的某一阶段(特别是现时阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统的内部构成成分及组织结构的比较。 在共时语言学研究中，要对某一语言的某一结构系统进行描述，就必须对这一结构系统里的各种语言现象加以比较分析。例如，如果我们要研究一种语言的语音系统，我们就要比较这个系统里的各个音素的发音部位和方法有什么不同，它们的声学物理属性有什么不同，在音节中的分布又有什么不同的规律，我们就必须比较这个语言中各类词的语法作用有什么不同，组合搭配有什么特点，等等。而且，要确定一个语言中的词可以区分为哪几个词类，这本身就要进行大量的形态、语义、语法特征等方面的比较。因此可以说，同一语言内的共时比较是语音学、语法学、词汇学等构成当代语言学主流的各个分支学科的一种主要研究方法。 象限Ⅱ代表了同一语言内部的历时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史演变的不同阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统加以比较，从而使我们了解这一语言的发展历史，找出其基本发展演变规律。例如，通过对英语的历时比较，语言学家一般认为，英语的演变经历了古英语、中古英语、早期现代英语和现代英语等四个阶段。其语法演变的总趋势表现为从一个综合型的语言逐步向一个分析型的语言发展，即词的屈折变化逐渐减少，语法意义的表达越来越多地依赖语序以及介词等语法作用词的运用。这类比较是对某一语言的语言史及其分科(如词源学、古今比较语法学等研究的主要方法。 象限Ⅲ代表了不同语言之间的历时比较。这类比较是对不同语言(一般是亲属语言在各个历史发展阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统进行比较，其目的主要是探讨语言之间的历史联系，并据此对世界上的语言进行谱系分类，重建或构拟某一组亲属语的共同原始语(proto-language，找出它们之间的某些共同发展规律. 例如，语言学家通过对印欧语系诸语言之向的历时比较研究，使我们能够大致了解这些语言在历史演变过程中的关系，推断出原始印欧语的大致形式。不同语言之间的历时比较往往

语言学定义

articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)--the study of the production of speach sounds. acoustic phonetics:(声学语言学) --the study of physical properties of speech sounds. Allophones(音位变体)--the different phones which cab represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of taht phoneme. consonant(辅音):a major category of sound segments produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is so marked that air can not escape without producting audible friction. compositionality(综合性原则):the meaning of a sentence should be viewed from both the grammatical structure and the word meaning.In other words,the meaning of a sentence depend on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. cooperative principle(合作原则):1,Maxim of Quantity.2,maxim of Quality.3,Maxim of relatiob.4,Maxim of manner. Constatives(叙事句):a constative sentence is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.It can be said to be ture or false. Endocentric(向心结构):is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i,e,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head. Exocentric(离心结构)：it refers to a group of syntactionally related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable "center" or "head" inside the group

考研语言学概论(邢福义版)复习要点

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语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by social group for communication. Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Productivity:language is resourceful because of its duality and its reclusiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Displacement:human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and spare) at the movement of communication. Cultural transmission:language is not genetically inherited. Passed from generation to generation, it requires some learning. It is true human are born with language capacity, but a particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one, rather than a genetic one like the dogs’ barking system. Interchangeability:any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages. Language function: informative: language is the instrument of thought, record the facts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. Interpersonal: by far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Performative: the performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons Emotive: to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. Phatic communion: we all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual contents.

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