英语语言学概论Chapter7Semantics(语义学)

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 What is semantics?

?Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.

7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics

. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics

, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.

7.2 meaning

7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaning

The words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.

Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.

7.2.2 theories of meaning

John Lyons

1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说

2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.

3.the behaviourist theory 行为反应说

4.the meaning-is-use theory 用法说

5.the verificationist theory验证说

6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说

Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三角理论

7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaning

Reference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers.

Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with reference

Referent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. Limitations

Sense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language.

Extension and intension

Extension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.

Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.

7.2.4 Types of meaning

Denotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义

The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes.

We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.

The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.

Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)

7.3

Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.

7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析

The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)

7.3.2

7.3.2 Semantic field 语义场

Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).

7.3.3 Lexical relations

Saeed 8 lexical relations

一Form relation 形式关系

Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meanings

Absolute homoyms 同音同形异义词

Homopones 同音异义词

Homographs 同形异义词

二Sense relations 语义关系

1.Polysemy一词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings

2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings

3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaning

complementary antonymy 互补反义关系

Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系

Relational opposite 关系对立反义词

4.Hyponymy下义关系

Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词

三object relations 实体关系

1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系

2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系

3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系

Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.

7.4 sentential semantics

Six essential factors for determining sentence meaning

i) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;

ii) grammaticality of a sentence;

iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;

iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;

v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;

vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.

Nine semantic roles

Agent （施事格）

Patient （目标格）

Experiencer （经验者）

Instrument （工具格）

Cause （动因格）

Attribute （属性）

Recipient （接受者）

Locative （方位格）

Temporal （时间格）

Synonymous

Entail

Contradict

Presuppose presupposition trigger

Tautology

Contradiction

Semantically anomalous 异常的反常的

Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题