最新语言学中的名词解释总结
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Chapter 1: Introduction Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1. Linguistics:The study of language as a whole.
2. general linguistics:the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,
3. applied linguistics:
especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in 4. prescriptive:using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not
say).
If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually 5. descriptive:use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)
The description of language at some point of time in history is a 6. synchronic study: synchronic study. (06C/ 04)
It's a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of7. diachronic study
language over a period of time. (06C) Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech 8. langue:community.
Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
9. parole :）The ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. （08F/09C10. competence :universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules linguistic competence:有competencecomprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.什么区别？？The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 11. performance :
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 12. language :Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that 13. design features :
distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and 14. arbitrariness:sounds.(08C)
Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and 15. productivity:
interpretation of new signals by it's users. Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of :（16. duality double articulation）
sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate 17. displacement:situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)
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18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of
any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather
than by instinct).
: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from Sociolinguistics19.the core of the branch.: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well 20.Psycholinguistics
as language acquisition.
the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5c11050222.html,municative competence:
Chapter 2: Phonology The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human
1. phonic medium :communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within
)
this range are speech sounds The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in 2. phonetics : the world's languages. (06C)It studies sounds from the speaker's point of view, i.e. how a speaker 3. articulatory phonetics :uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)
m the hearer's point of view, i.e. how the sounds The studies sounds fro4. auditory phonetics:are perceived by the hearer.
It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the 5. acoustic phonetics:speaker issues.
It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by 或者which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)
the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords. 6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
7. voiceless:The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences 8. broad transcription:in written form.
The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in 9. narrow transcription:written form.
The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
10. diacritics:short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and 11. IPA:diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.
A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.
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13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.
The place where obstruction is created.
14. place of articulation : a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another. 15. consonant:
a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction. 16. vowel :the individual vowel.
17. monophthong :The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by 18. diphthong :moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)
A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic 19. phone:
communication are all phones.
ted by a An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it's represen20. phoneme :certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)
The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.
或者the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic21. allophone :enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)
The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form 22. phonology :patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)
two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and 23. phonemic contrast :distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.
allophones of the same phoneme and they don't distinguish 24. complementary distribution :meaning but complement each other in distribution.
two different forms are identical in every way except for 25. minimal pair:
one sound segment which occurs in the same position.
The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 26. sequential rules:The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a 27. assimilation rule:sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically 28. deletion
rule:represented.
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the 29. suprasegmental features:segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F) Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the 30. tone:vocal cords.
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 31. intonation:known as intonation.
in isolation, they're collectively
It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.
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32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant
together constitute a minimal set.
Chapter 3: Morphology A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for 1. morphology:word formation.
A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words 2. open class:can be added to it constantly.(08C)
A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new 3. closed class:members,including
conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.
The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering 4. morpheme:or destroying its meaning.
a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or 5. affix:function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix. The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of 6. suffix:speech of a word.
The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the 7. prefix:meaning of a word to its opposite.
Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. 8. bound morpheme:ment.
–E.g.
07F（）9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word. Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new 10. derivational morpheme:
word.
A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical 11. inflectional morpheme:categories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F)
The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes 12. morphological rules:combine to form words.
A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words 13. compound words:the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification to 14. inflection:indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)
Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added
15.Derivation:
to an existing form to create a word.
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1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and
the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a 2. category:particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, 3. syntactic categories:called syntactic categories.
one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the 4. major lexical category:heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.
one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major 5. minor lexical category:lexical category.
syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the 6. phrase:category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different 7. phrase category:
categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)
The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.
8. head:The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top level 9. specifier:are said to function as specifiers.
The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
10. complement:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the 11. phrase structure rule:
arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while 12. XP rule:the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in
which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.
A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of 13. X^
theory:context-free phrases structure rules.
Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type 14. coordination:. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.) orand or with the help of a conjunction (such as
The information about a word's complement is included in the head and 15. subcategorization:
termed suncategorization. (07C)
Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed 16. complementizer:complementizer.(08F/09C)
The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement 17. complement clause:clause.
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18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is
called a complement phrase.
the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called 19. matrix clause:matrix clause.
the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called 20. modifier:modifier.
a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to 21. transformation :another.
the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a 22. inversion :position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.
In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, 23. Do insertion :interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.
A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule in24. deep structure : accordance with the heads's subcategorization properties.(08F)
Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which result 25. surface structure :from appropriate transformations. (05)
whwh- word are called 26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a
question.
phrase from its position in deep wh movement :The transformation that will move 27. Wh structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called whmovement.
a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘is a cover term foe any α:
28. move
element that can be moved from one place to another.
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the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of 29. universal grammar:all human languages.第十一章to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemes 30.structural analysis:
in a language.
how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents. 31.IC analysis: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that
32.paradigmatic relation:is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.
the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously
33.syntagmatic relation:present in a structure.
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34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences
into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words
is reached.
35.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is
functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical
English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is
functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.
Chapter 5: Semantics 1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a
word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through
the mediation of concept of the mind.
3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection
of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of
meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It
deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of
experience.
5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are
close in meaning are called synonyms.
6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.(08C)
7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.
8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go
together with.
9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(it can be understood as the growth
and development of or change in the meaning of the words).(05/03)
10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings
have the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
(04)
11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.
12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
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13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are
complete homonyms.
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive 14. hyponymy:word and a more specific word.
and ;15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate hyponyms of the same superordinate are hyponyms;the more specific words are called its to each other.
co-hyponyms
Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. 16. co-hyponyms:
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. 17. antonymy:Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate 18. gradable antonyms:forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there
exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)
a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair 19. complementary antonyms:implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.
Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the 20. relational opposites:two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell,
let---rent, above---below.
the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from 21. entailment:(07F)
Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.the truth of the other. E.g.Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y. 或者What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already 22. presupposition:to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。knows.
is a presupposition of Take some more teae.g. Some tea has already been taken an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning 23. componential analysis:may be shown as [+human] [+male]
[-adult]. boycomponents or semantic features. For example,
a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence 24. predication analysis:meaning.(08C)
In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, 25. predication:which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation 26. predicate:linking the arguments in a sentence.
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the 27. argument:nominal element(s) in a sentence.
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28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the
rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a 29. semantic features: has the semantic features [+human] womancombination of semantic components. For example,
[-male] [+adult]. (04)
The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)
30. presequence:Chapter 6: Pragmatics
The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication. 1. pragmatics:It is generally considered as constitued by the knowledge shared by the speakers and 2. context:the hearers. (05)
The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized 3. sentence meaning:features in isolation from context.
The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a 4. utterance meaning:08C)
certain context with a certain purpose. (03、expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention. 5. utterance:
The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which 6. Speech Act Theory:believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. 7. constatives:(06F/07C)
sentences that don't state a fact or describe a state, and are Performatives are 8. performatives:not verifiable.(07F)
The act of uttering words,phrases,clauses and conveying literal meaning by 9. locutionary act:virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
pressing the speaker's intention and performed in saying 10. illocutionary act: The act of exsomething. (06F)
The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the 11. perlocutionary act:change brought about by the utterance. Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 12. representatives:
Trying to get the hearer to do something. 13. directives:
Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.14. commisives:
Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.15. expressives:
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16. declaration/declaratives:Bring about immediate changes by saying something.(07F)
17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be
willing to
cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.
18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during
conversation.
19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the
same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)
1. Make your contribution as informative maxim of quantity:as required (for the 20.The
current purpose of exchange.)2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is
required.
21.The maxim of quality:
1 Do not say what you believe to be false.
2 Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（09C）？
22. The maxim of relation:Be relevant.
1 Avoid obscurity of expression.
2 Avoid ambiguity.
3 Be belief.
4 Be 23. The maxim of manner:orderly.(08F)
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语言学名词解释整理
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
英语语言学名词解释(2)
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
药理学名词解释归纳
药理学 名词解释 绪论 1．药理学Pharmacology 研究药物与机体（含病原体）之间相互作用规律及其机制的一门科学。 2. 药物diug 能改变或查明机体的生理功能及病理状态，用以预防、治疗及诊断疾病的物质。3．药动学pharmacokinetics 研究机体对药物的处置过程，即药物在机体的作用下发生的动态变化规律。 4．药效学Pharmacodynamics 研究药物对机体的作用及作用机制。即机体在药物影响下发生的生理、生化变化及机制。 5. 售后调研postmarketing surveillance 上市后在社会人群大范围内继续进行受试药物安全性和有效性评价，在广泛长期使用的条件下考查疗效和不良反应，该期对最终确定新药的临床价值有重要意义。 药效学 1．药物作用drug action 药物与组织细胞之间的初始作用。 2．药理效应drug effect 指继发于药物作用之后的组织细胞原有功能的改变。 3. 兴奋excitation 凡能使机体原有生理、生化功能加强的作用。 4. 抑制inhibition 凡能使机体原有生理、生化功能减弱的作用。 5. 特异性specifity 多数药物是通过化学反应而产生药理效应，这种化学反应的专一性使药物具有特异性。 6. 选择性selectivity 药物只对某些组织器官发生明显作用，而对其他组织作用很小或无作用。 7. 疗效therapeutic effect 药物作用的结果有利于改变病人的生理生化功能或病理过程，使患病机体恢复正常。 8．对因治疗etiological treatment 用药目的在于消除原发致病因子，彻底治愈疾病称对因治疗，或称治本。 9．对症治疗symptomatic treatment 用药目的在于改善疾病症状，减轻疾病的并发症称对症治疗，或称治标。 10．不良反应adverse reaction 凡不符合用药目的或给病人带来痛苦与危害的反应称不良反应。多数不良反应是药物固有效应的延伸． 11．副反应side reaction （副作用side effect）药物在治疗剂量时出现的与治疗目的无关的作用称副反应，亦称副作用。副反应是药物本身固有的，是因药物选择性低而引起的，一般不严重，难避免． 12．毒性反应toxic reaction 药物在剂量过大、用药时间过长、机体敏感性过高时对机体发生的危害性反应称毒性反应。一般较严重，但是可以预知和避免。 13．后遗效应residual effect 停药后血药浓度已降至阈浓度以下时残存的药理效应 14. 停药反应withdrawal reaction 长期应用某些药物，突然停药后原有病情加重现象。又称回跃反应（rebound reaction） 15. 变态反应allergic reaction（过敏反应hypersensitive reaciton）药物对过敏特质病人引起的异常免疫反应。 16. 特异质反应idiosyncratic reaction 少数患者对某些药物发生的与往常性质不同的不良良应。是由于遗传缺陷造成的。
语言学的名词解释
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
英语语言学名词解释
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
大学英语语言学期末考试名词解释和论述答案
名词解释 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5c11050222.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5c11050222.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
(完整版)药理学名词解释汇总
是研究药物与机体相互作用规律和原理的科学，包括药效动力学和药代动力学两方面，前者是阐明药物对机体的作用和作用原理，后者阐明药物在机体内吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄的过程，及药物效应和血药浓度随时间消长的规律，以达到指导临床合理用药的目的。 药效学 是研究药物对机体作用、作用原理、量效关系及有关影响因素的科学，也是选用药物的主要依据。 药动学 是研究机体对药物处置过程及体内血药浓度随时间变化规律。 治疗作用 凡能达到治疗疾病目的的作用。 不良反应 用药后产生与治疗目的无关的其它作用。 副作用 指药物在治疗量时出现的与治疗目的无关的作用，一般症状轻。 毒性反应 药物剂量过大、用药时间过长或药物在体内蓄积过多时，对用药者靶组织（器官）发生的危害性反应。 变态反应 指少数人对药物的特殊反应，它也是免疫反应的一种表现，与毒性反应不同。 后遗效应 指停药后血药浓度已绛至有效水平以下时所残存的生物效应。 继发反应 指药物治疗作用所产生的不良后果，又称治疗矛盾。 三致反应 致畸、致癌、致突变 个体差异 个体之间同一药物的反应可以有明显差异 高敏性 对同一个药物，有的个体特别敏感，只需很小剂量就可以达到应有的效应，常规剂量就能产生强烈效应或中毒反应。 耐受性 有的个体对药物敏感性低，需要较大剂量才能达到同等药效 量效关系 药物剂量的大小和效应强弱之间呈一定关系 治疗量 大于最小有效量，并能对机体产生明显效应而又不引起毒性反应的剂量 极量 是由国家药典明确规定允许使用的最大剂量，比治疗量大，但比最小中毒量小，也是医生用药选量的最大限度。 效能 指继续增加剂量药效不在提高时的效应。 效价强度 该药达到一定效应时所需的剂量。
语言学概论名词解释
语言学概论名词解释 序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 语文学：是为给古代文化遗产，即政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。“小学”：中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，形成了文字学、音韵学、训诂学，分别探讨和研究汉字的字形、字音、字义。 专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。 共时语言学、历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化，把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,。共时语言学研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系，如对现代汉语的研究；历时语言学研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。 普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。 表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 索绪尔：现代语言学的创始人，代表著作是《普通语言学教程》。（简单要加补充） 语言的社会功能 语言：就其本质而言，语言是一种音义结合的符号系统；就其社会功能来说，语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和必不可少的思维工具。 言语：是对语言的运用，是语言的行为和结果。 说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 思维：是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。 社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文体传统的人类共同体，即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。 符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。 语言符号：是由音义结合构成的，代表或指称现实现象的符号。“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言符号。 语言的线条性：是指语言符号在交际过程中，其声音只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 语言的任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成，没有什么必然的、本质的联系。 语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。 征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。 语音部分 语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主
英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
药理学名词解释
1.药理学( pharmacology )：是研究药物与机体(包括病原体)之间相互作用及作用规律的一门学科。 2.药效学( pharmacodynamics )：研究药物对机体的作用和作用机制。 3.药动学( pharmacokinetics )：研究药物在机体的影响下所发生的变化及其规律，包括吸收、 分布、代谢和排泄等过程。 4.离子障(ion trapping )：药物在跨膜转运时，非离子型(非解离部分) 药物可以自由穿透，而离子型药物就被限制在膜的另一侧。 5.首关消除( first pass metabolism )：口服药物从胃肠道吸收后经门静脉进入肝脏，有些药物易被肝脏截留破坏(代谢) ，进入体循环的有效药量明显减小。 6.药酶诱导剂：有些药物能增强药酶活性或使药酶合成加速，从而加快其本身或另一些药物转化，使其作用减弱或缩短。 7.肝肠循环( enterohepatic cycle )：有些药物在肝细胞与葡萄糖醛酸等结合后排入胆中，随胆汁到达小肠后被水解，游离药物被重吸收，此过程称为肝肠循环。 8.一级动力学消除 ( first-order elimination kinetics )：又称恒比消除，是体内药物在单位时间内消除的药物百分率不变。 9.零级动力学消除( zero-order elimination kinetics )：又称恒量消除，是药物在体内以恒定的速率消除。 10.稳态血药浓度(steady-state concentration, Css) ：也称坪值。按照一级动力学规律消除的药物，其体内药物总量随着不断给药逐步增多，直至从体内消除的药物量和进入体内的药物量相等时，体内药物总量不再增加而达到稳定状态，此时的血浆药物浓度称为稳态浓度。一般需经4～5个t1/2 后达到稳态浓度。 11.半衰期(half life, t1/2) ：常指消除半衰期，即药物在体内消除一半所需的时间，或者血药浓度下降一半所需的时间。 12.清除率( clerance, CL)：是肝、肾等对药物消除率的总和，即单位时间内有多少容积血浆中所含药物被消除。 13.表观分布容积( apparrnt volume of distribution, Vd )：当血浆和组织内药物分布达到平衡后，体内药物按此时的血浆药物浓度在体内时所需体液容积。 14.生物利用度( bioavailability, F )：指药物经血管外给药时，能被机体吸收进入全身血循环内药物的百分率。 15.生物等效性 ( bioequivalence )：两个药学等同的药品，若它们所含的有效成分的生物利用度无显著差别，则称为生物等效。 16.药物作用( drug action )：是指药物对机体的初始作用。 17.药理效应( pharmacological effect )：是药物作用的结果，是机体反应的表现。 18.兴奋：机体器官原有功能水平的提高。 19.抑制：机体器官原有功能水平的降低。 20.对因治疗( etiological treatment )：用药目的在于消除原发致病因子，彻底治愈疾病。 21.对症治疗( symptomatic treatment )：用药目的在于改善症状，不能根除病因。 22.不良反应( adverse reaction )：凡与用药目的无关，并为病人带来不适或痛苦的反应。 23.副反应(副作用) (side reaction )：由于选择性低，药理效应涉及多个器官，当某一效应用做治疗目的时，其他效应就成为副反应。 24.毒性反应( toxic reaction )：是指在剂量过大或药物在体内蓄积过多时发生的危害性反应，一般比较严重。