欧洲文化知识总括
《欧洲文化入门》知识总括
Introduction
1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.
2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
3、The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
Unit 1
1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.
3、Olympus mount，Revived in 1896（当代奥运会）
4、Ancient Greek epics were created by Homer.
5、They events of Homer‘s own time. （F）
（They are not about events of Homer‘s own time，probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.）
6、The Homer‘s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.
7、Agamemnon，Hector，Achilles are in Iliad.
8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.
9、Odyssey（对其作品产生影响）—→James Joyoe‘s Ulysses（描述一天的生活）; in the 20th century.
10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.
11、三大悲剧大师①Aeschylus
《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》
②Sophocles（之首）
《Oedipus the King》—→Freud‘s “the Oedipus complex”（恋母情结）—→David Herbert Lawrence’s《Sons and lovers》（劳伦斯）
③Euripides
A.《Trojan Women》
B. He is the first writer of “problem plays”.
Perfection----Ibsen
Climax----Bernard Shaw
C. Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides the human”
D. Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece.
To be specific，Euripides.
12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页
Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派（The lakers）Wordsworth）
13、History （Historical writing）
※“Father of History”—→Herodotus —→war（between Greeks and Persians）This war is called Peloponnesian wars.
只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。
※“The greatest historian that ever lived.”（有史以来最伟大的历史学家）—→Thucydides —→war （Sparta，Athens and Syracuse）
14、The Greek historical writing writes mainly about wars.
15、受希腊文化影响的传教士St. Paul. Democritus （Materialism）
16、希腊文化中的哲学被基督教所吸收
17、①Euclid‘s Elements
It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century. （历史地位）
②Archimedes
选择：Give me a place to stand，and I will move the world.谁的理论（Archimedes）
18、Architecture古希腊建筑三大风格名词解释
19、The famous temples：The Acrpolis at Athens and the Parthenon.
20、The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
21、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. （罗马征服希腊的标志）
22、From 146 B.C.，Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
Greek that of the eastern half.
23、Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
24、The Roman writer Horace said “captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”。
25、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.
26、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods：republic and empire.
27、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato‘s republic.
28、The land area of Roman empire reached its climax in 2 to 3 century.
29、north：Scotland east：Armenia and Mesopotamia
30、名解Pax Romana
33、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians.
34、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.
35、After 395，the empire was divided into East （the Byzantine Empire）and West.
36、Ciceronian style
37、Julius Caesar commentaries“I came，I saw，I conquered.”
38、Virgil----Aeneid 阿尼德
39、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.
The world‘s first vast interior space.
40、The Colosseum
41、Sculpture---She-wolf
42、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.
43、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly.
论述简答
一、What is the limitation of “Democracy”in ancient Greece？（名解简答）
（How do you understand “Democracy”in ancient Greece？What is the difference between “Democracy”in ancient Greece and modern democracy？）
答：
①Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”，but in Greece by “the whole people”the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.
②Women，children，foreigners and slaves were excluded from Democracy.
二、How did the Greek Culture originate and develop？
答：
①Probably around 1200 B.C.， a war was fought between Greece and troy. This is the war that Homer refers to in his epics.
②Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.
A. The successful repulse of the Persian invasion ear ly in the 5th century.
B. The establishment of democracy.
C. The flourishing of science，philosophy，literature，art and historical writing in Athens.
③The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
④In the second half of the 4th century B.C.，Greece was conquered by Alexander，king of Macedon. Whenever he went and conquered，whenever Greek culture was found.
⑤Melting between Greek culture and Roman culture in 146 B.C.，the Romans conquered Greece.
三、How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop？
答：
（1）、Three founders
1、Pythagoras
①All things were numbers.
②Scientific mathematics.
③Theory of proportion.
2、Heracleitue
①Fire is the primary elements of the universe.
②The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.
3、Democritus①the atomic theory.
②materialism.
（2）、Three thinkers
1、Socrates
①He hadn‘t written works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.
②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.
2、Plato
①The Academy is the first school in the world，it was established by Plato.
②He has four works. Dialogues，Apology，Symposium and Republic.
3、Aristotle
①The Lyceum is the second school in the world，it was established by Aristotle.
②Aristotle is a humanist.
（2）、Five contending schools
1、The Sophists
①Under the leadership of Protagoras.
②The representative of work is On the God.
③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”。
2、The Cynics
①Under the leadership of Diogenes.
②The word “cynic”means “dog”in English.
③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.
3、The Sceptics
①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.
②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable，and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.
4、The Epicureans
①Under the leadership of Epicurus.
②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.
Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.
Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.
5、The Stoics
①Under the leadership of Zeno.
②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.
One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.
Developed into Stoics‘duty.
He was also a materialist.
四、What philosophy system did Plato established？
（Why do we say Plato‘s philosophy system was idealistic？Do you think Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy？）
答：
1、It dealt with，among other things，the problem of how，in the complex，ever—changing world，men were to attain knowledge.
2、The first case and physical world should take the secondary case.
3、Idealistic of philosophy.
4、Many of Plato‘s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.
五、What‘s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas （system）？
答：
1、For one thing，Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato‘s reliance on subjective thinking.
2、For another，he thought that “form”and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here，too，he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world.
3、Aristotle thought happiness was men‘s aim in life. But not happiness in the vulgar sense，but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason，goodness and contemplation.
一句话简答题What should be man‘s aim in life？
Aristotle‘s answer was：happiness.
六、What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development？
（What positive influence did the Greek Culture exert on the world civilization？）
答：
There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1、Spirit of innovation
The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy；They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals；They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life，without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.
2、Supreme Achievement
The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavor：Philosophy，science，epic poetry，comedy，historical writing，architecture，etc.
3、Lasting effect
①Countless writers have quoted，borrowed from and otherwise used Homer‘s epics，the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides，Aristophanes’s comedies，Plato‘s Dialogues，ect.
②In the early part of the 19th century，in England alone，three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics：Byron‘s Isles of Greece，Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats‘s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
③In the 20th century，there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce‘s modernist masterpiece, Ulysses.
七、What is the similarity and difference between Greek culture and Roman culture？
答：
1、similarity①Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly.
②Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified ，and their myths to be fused.
③Their languages worked in similar ways，both being members of the Indo-European language family.
2、difference①The Romans built up a vast empire；the Greeks didn‘t，except for the brief moment of Alexander’s conquests，which soon disintegrated.
②The Romans were confident in their own organizational power，their military and administrative capabilities.
八、What is the Rome historical background？
答：
1、The history of Rome divided into two periods：Before the year 27 B.C.，Rome had been
a republic；from the year 27 B.C.，Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus and Roman Empire began.
2、Two centuries later，the Roman Empire reached its climax，marked by land area‘s extension：Encircling the Mediterranean.
3、Strong military power：the famous Roman legions.
4、In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed by the Roman legions，it was known as Pax Romana.
5、Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.
6、The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.
①In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Renamed it Constantinople （modern Istanbul）。
②After 395 ，the empire was divided into East （The Byzantine Empire）and West
③In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire.
④The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.
Unit 2
1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.
2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European
culture：Judaism and Christianity.
3、The Jewish tradition，which gave birth to Christianity. Both originated in Palestine，which was known as Canaan.
4、The ancestors of the Jews —the Hebrews.
5、They called “Hebrews”，which means “wanderers”.
6、About 1300 B.C.，the Hebrews came to settle in Palestine.
7、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.
8、The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament.
9、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.
10、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.
11、The New Testament is，in essence，the four accounts，written by the four disciples.
12、The word “Testament”means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
13、Bible is representative of Christianity.
14、The Old Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament”means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
15、The New Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament”means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
16、The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch.
17、Pentateuch名词解释The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books：Genesis，Exodus，Leviticus，Numbers，Deuteronomy.
18、Genesis名词解释Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people，including the origin of the world and of man，the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.
19、Exodus名词解释Exodus is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt，the period when they began to receive God ‘s Law. Joshua brought the people safely back to canaan.
20、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis，Pentateuch，the Old Testament，The Bible.
21、Noah‘s Ark was recorded in Genesis，Pentateuch，the Old Testament，The Bible.
22、The Historical Books was divided into seven sections：？
①Books of Joshua ②Books of Judges ③Books of Samuel ④Books of Kings
⑤Books of the Chronicles ⑥Books of Ezra ⑦Books of Nehemiah.
23、The content of historical Books：1200B.C. 586 B.C.
Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C.，till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.
24、The History Books的内容
①The development of system of landed nobles.
②The development of monarchy.
③Establishment of the two Kingdoms.
④The settlement in the highlands
⑤Age of great prosperity under Saul，David and Solomon.
25、Joshua brought the people safely back to Canaan.
26、The first king to unite the Hebrews was Saul.
27、David established religious capital，Jerusalem to Palestine.
28、The Prophets 名词解释
For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as “Prophets”or the spokesmen of God. Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet. The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.
29、The Book of Daniel名词解释
The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. It tells about the Hebrews being carried away into Babylon.
30、The former body of church was known as Synagogues.
31、The Pentateuch is the book of Daniel is also called Torah.
32、The story about God‘s flooding to the human being and only good-virtue being saved was recorded in Genesis，Pentateuch，the Old Testament，the Bible，which was known as Noah’s Ark.
33、By 300 A.D.each local church was called a parish and had a full time leader known as a priest.
34、Several parishes were grouped together into a large unit called diocese，which was headed by a bishop.
35、The most important bishops were called archbishops.
36、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.
37、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in St. Matthew.
38、All the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations.
39、The Last Supper was recorded in John.
40、The Last Supper was put into an oil painting by Da Vinci in the high renaissance in Italy.
41、The Last Supper adapted from St. John，the New Testament, the Bible.
42、The story about Jesus being betrayed by Judas was known as The Last Supper.
43、The story about Jesus being pinned in the cross to death was known as The Cruxifixion .
44、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
45、Wycliff 与Tyndale 的区别是：语言来源不同
46、William Tyndale‘s version was based on the original Hebrew and Greek sources.
论述简答一、What difference between Christianity and the other religions？
（What are the forceful beliefs of Christianity？）
答：
Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.
1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God，and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live，suffer as humans suffer，and die to redeem mankind.
2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son，so that whosoever believes in him should not perish，but have everlasting life.
加尔文主义Calvinism也有这样的观点
二、How did Christianity originate and develop in the European continent？
☆（How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion？
答：
1、The disciples of Jesus St. Peter and St. Paul spread his gospel，first among the Jews in Palestine and then in the Mediterranean region.
2、During a time of great unrest and upheaval in the European continent，the poor and humble found comfort in the Christian Gospel.
3、Christianity began to draw men and women from all classes in Europe. The Romans grew tired of war and feared the collapse of the empire. And they admired the courage of the Christian missionaries.
4、Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle and issued the Edict of Milan in 313. It granted （许可）religious freedom to all，and made Christianity legal.
5、In 392 A.D.，Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religions.
Conclusion: Now Christianity had changed from an object of oppression to a weapon in the hands of the ruling class to crush their opponents. The Latin language became the official language.
三、What are the different translation editions of the Bible？
答：
1、The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as the Septuagint. And it is still in use in the Greek Church today. But it only translated the Old Testament.
2、The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition，which was done in 385-405 A.D. By St. Jerome in common people‘s language. It became the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the world.
3、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
4、After John Wycliff‘s version，appeared William Tyndale’s version. It was based on the original Hebrew and Greek sources.
5、The Great Bible ordered by Henry Ⅷin 1539 to be placed in all the English churches was in part founded on Tyndale‘s work.
6、The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized”or “King James”version，first published in 1611. It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James. With its simple，majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue，it is known as the greatest book in the English languages.
7、The Revised Version appeared in 1885，and the standard American edition of the Revised Version in 1901.
8、The Good News Bible and the New English Bible.
四、What is the great significance of the translations of the bible？
（What are the great influences that the English Bible has on the American and British literature？）
答：
1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.
2、Milton‘s Paradise Lost ，Bunyan’s Pilgrim‘s Progress，Byron’s Cain，up to the contemporary Hemingway‘s The Sun Also Rises，and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.
Unit 3
1、the Middle ages名词解释
In European history，the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.
2、The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific，from the 5th century to 15th century.
3、The transitional period is called the middle ages，between ancient times and modern times.
4、The transitional period is called the 17th century，between the middle ages and modern times.
5、In 476 A.D. a Germanic general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1453年灭
6、Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding （土地所有）— a system of holding land in exchange for military service （军事力量）。The word “feudalism”was derived （来源）from the Latin “feudum”，a grant （许可的）of land.
7、fiefs（次划分）名词解释In Feudalism，the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors （有功的大臣）or soldiers as a reward （奖赏）for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs.
8、vassals （占有fiefs的人）名词解释
In Feudalism，the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors （有功的大臣）or soldiers as a reward （奖赏）for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.
9、code of chivalry （骑士制度）名词解释
As a knight，he were pledged to protect the weak，to fight for the church，to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry，from which the western idea of good manners developed.
10、dubbing （骑士头衔加冕仪式）名词解释
After a knight was successful in his trained and tournaments，there was always a special ceremony （选择）to award him with a title，knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.
11、knight trained for war by fighting each other in mock battles called tournaments.（模拟战场）
12、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.（穆斯林）
13、The Manor （领地所有制）名词解释
The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords （农场主）。By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.
14、After 1054，the church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
15、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve （保留）and pass on the heritage （传统）of the Roman Empire.
16、The word “catholic”，meant “universal”。（广泛的，无处不在的）
17、St. Jerome，who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate （拉丁语圣经）
18、Early Monasticism （早期修道院制）名词解释
Between 300 and 500 A.D.，many men withdrew from （放弃了）worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places. This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries （男）and convents （女）for monks and nuns. Some of the hermits （隐士）were great scholars known as “Father of the Church”，whose work is generally considered orthodox.（东正教）
19、Augustine —→“Confession”（坦白）and “The City of God”（上帝之都）
20、St. Benedict —→founded Benedictine Rule about 529 A.D. （专门给清修的人制定的法律）
21、The Inquisition （问讯厅）to stamp out so-called heresy.异教
22、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. （耶路撒冷）
23、Crusades went on about 200 years.
24、There were altogether eight chief Crusades.
25、（结束）By 1291 the Moslems （穆斯林）had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.
26、Carolingian Renaissance名词解释
Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne‘s name in Latin，Carolus. The most interesting facet （一面）of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle （有见解）of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate （吸收）the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
27、Roger Bacon‘s work was the Opus maius.
28、National Epics（民族史诗运动）名词解释
The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is，the languages of various national states （民族国家）that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.
29、Chaucer （乔叟）的诗歌特点：①power of observation （观察）
②piercing irony （敏锐的讽刺）③sense of humour ④warm humanity （温暖的人性）
与狄更斯相似
30、Gothic名词解释①The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.
②It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and，in some areas，into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.
③The Gothic was an outgrowth （丰富与发展）of the Romanesque.（罗马式）
31、The Canterbury Tales：
①The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.
②Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.（压头韵）
③Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.
论述简答一、In the middle ages，what cultures began to merge （融合）？
答：
Classical，Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged （文化融合）。It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.中世纪为现代欧洲文化铺平道路
二、Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith （信仰的年代）？名词解释和简答
答：
1、During the Medieval （中世纪）times there was no central （中央的）government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite （团结）Europe was the Christian church.
2、The Christian church continued to gain （赢得）widespread （普及的）power and influence.
3、In the Late middle ages，almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics，law，art，and learning （思想领域）for hundreds of years.
4、It shaped （形成）people‘s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”。
三、How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages？
答：
1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding （土地所有）— a system of holding land in exchange for military service （军事力量）。The word “feudalism”was derived （来源）from the Latin “feudum”， a grant （许可的）of land.
2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners，the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners，but they still had freedom，they were called freemen.
3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners，and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.
4、In Feudalism，the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors （有功的大臣）or soldiers as a reward （奖赏）for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.
5、There came a form of local and decentralized （分散化的）government.
6、As a knight，he were pledged to protect the weak，to fight for the church，to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry，from which the western idea of good manners developed.
四、What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture？
（What is the great significance of the Crusades？）
答：
1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. （拉近了东西方的交流）
2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine，kings at home found opportunities （机会）to strengthen （加强）themselves. Thus among other things，Crusades helped to break down feudalism，which，in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. （取而代之的是君主专制）霍布斯主张君主专制
3、Besides，through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems，the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire （期望）for wealth or power began to overshadow （战胜）their religious ideals.
4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people‘s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century，universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals （阿拉伯数字），algebra （代数），and Arab medicine （医学）were introduced to the West.
5、As trade increased，village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments. （民族政府）
五、How did learning and science develop in the Middle Ages？
答：
1、Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance：（查理曼的文艺复兴）
①He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans”by the pope in 800.
②Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne‘s name in Latin，Carolus. The most interesting facet （一面）of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle （有见解）of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate （吸收）the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
2、Alfred the Great and Wes*** Centre of Learning：（阿尔伏雷德大帝和威克萨斯王国）
①He promoted （奖励）translations into the vernacular from Latin works.
②He also inspired （授意）the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. （编年史）
3、St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism：（经院主义，保守主义的雏形）
4、Roger Bacon and Experimental Science：（实用主义）
①Roger Bacon， a monk，was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. （最早的支持者）亚里士多德最早提出
②He called for careful observation （观察）and experimentation. His main work was the Opus maius.
六、How did literature develop in the middle ages？
答：
1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is，the languages of various national states （民族国家）that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy：（但丁与神曲）
①His masterpiece，The Divine Comedy，is one of the landmarks of world literature.
②The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed （预示）the spirit of Renaissance.
③Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. （只用意大利语创作）
3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales：（乔叟与坎特布雷集）
①The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.
②Most of the tales are written in verse （诗）which reflects（反映）Chaucer‘s innovation （改革）by introducing into the native alliterative verse （压头韵诗）the French and Italian styles.
③Chaucer is thus to be ，regarded as （被看作）the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人
④Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.
七、What is the difference between the vernacular language used in the National epics and the vernacular language used by Mark twain？（重点☆）
答：
1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic”refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is，the languages of various national states （民族国家）that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2、The vernacular （方言）language used by Mark twain refers to both local and colloq （地方式俗语）language used in the Mississippi area，with a strong characteristic of that region （地区）.Mark twain used vernacular language not only in dialogue，but also in narration. （叙述）
3、His representative works Life on the Mississippi.
Unit Four
1、Renaissance名词解释
Generally speaking，Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance”means revival （复兴），specifically in this period of history，revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance，in essence （从实质上讲），was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts （试图）to get rid of conservatism （保守主义思想）in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie （资产阶级），to lift the restrictions （禁忌）in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.（权利威信）
2、Generally speaking，Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.
3、Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings，sculpture （雕塑）and architecture. 最早开始于painting
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欧洲文化入门(中世纪)
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《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记
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西方文化论文参考选题
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16. 解读伯里克利的政体：三权分立的雏形 17. 谈东西方文化差异以及对国际贸易的影响 18. 谈宗教宽容与科学理性的勃兴 19. 谈王朝国家与民族国家 20. 论文艺复兴与宗教改革的殊路同归 21. 浅析奥林匹克精神 22. 西方海外扩张与殖民主义 23. 论古希腊神话的童稚情趣 24. 浅析西方的神权与王权 25. 再论苏格拉底之死 26. 论古罗马的英雄主义 27. 论地理大发现极其影响 28. 论伏尔泰的启蒙思想之现实意义 29. 浅析中古世界的骑士文学效忠主题 30. 浅析基督教在中国的传播的途径 31. 中西方之“和谐”概念辨析 32. 论西方“海盗”情结 33. 西方科学的文化基因初探 34. 犹太人对西方中世界文化复兴的贡献之我见 35. 明末清初传教士来华对西方科技文化的影响 36. 西方主要发达国家文化政策对我国的启示 37. 郑和下西洋与哥伦布发现新大陆对比分析
英语文学文化及影视赏析
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欧洲文化的论文
河北大学工商学院添些学校 《xxx》结课论文 题目：欧洲文化之哥特式建筑 姓名：黄文泽 性别：男 专业：xxx 班级：xxx 学号：xxx
欧洲文化之哥特式建筑 欧洲文化博大精深历史悠久，无论是其人文艺术方面的发展还是其自然科学的严谨都吸引了广大的研究者和历史文化爱好者，经过本学期老师对欧州文化的讲解，我对本来就很感兴趣的欧洲建筑有了更深的了解和认识，下面我从其起源、建筑特点以及对现代建筑的影响简述下我眼中的欧洲建筑的代表——哥特式建筑。 哥特式建筑是中世纪下半叶起源于法国13——15世纪流行于欧洲的一种建筑风格。主要见于天主教堂也影响到世俗建筑。哥特式建筑以其超高的技术和艺术成就，在建筑史上占有重要是地位。 其特点主要是尖塔高耸,尖形拱门,大窗户及绘有圣经故事的花窗玻璃.营造出轻盈修长的飞天的感觉.以及新的框架结构以增加支撑顶部的力量.使整个建筑以直线线条,宏伟的外观和教堂内空阔的空间, 再结合镶着彩色玻璃的长窗,使教堂里产生一种浓厚的宗教气氛.教堂的平面仍是基本的拉丁十字型,但是其西端门的两侧增加一对高塔。 哥特式建筑结构也十分多样，主要有尖肋拱顶，飞扶壁，花窗玻璃等，下面就各国建筑代表为例来介绍哥特式结构在建筑上的体现。 意大利的哥特式建筑于十二世纪由国外传入,主要影响于北部地区.意大利没有真正接受哥特式建筑的结构体系和造型原型,只是把它当做是一种装饰风格,所以在意大利很难找到纯粹的哥特式建筑.威尼斯的世俗建筑有很多的杰作,圣马可广场上的总督宫被认为是中世纪的世俗建筑中最美丽的作品之一,成为广场的标志.城市里一般
建有许多高塔,总体轮廓线很美. 德国最早的哥特式教堂之一的科隆主教堂于1248年兴工,由建造过亚眠主教堂的法国人设计,有法国盛行的哥特式建筑的风格. 德国的教堂很早就形成了自己的形制和风格,如德国的马尔堡的圣伊莉莎白教堂的建筑结构体现了德国教堂建筑的最早特点：屋顶平缓，陡坡屋面罩在拱顶上，高度相等的教堂中厅和侧厅，教堂内部采光是依靠端体墙上高窄普通的窗户，全然去除尖顶、高侧窗、飞扶壁等等之类的样式，可谓一大创新。 以挺拔、动感、飞扬而著称的哥特式建筑艺术，在欧洲各地流行了近四个世纪之久，虽然走向了落寞，并曾经一度被文艺复兴时期的的艺术家们评为是野蛮的象征，但哥特式建筑艺术给欧洲各国带来的巨大影响却是不容忽视的，那一座座哥特式教堂以及具有哥特式风格的绘画和雕塑便是最好的证明。 综上所述，探讨哥特式建筑建筑艺术不仅仅是对建筑，建筑艺术的研究，更有助于我们了解其背后的宗教，历史，人文背景。对于我们更好的解读中世纪那段特殊的历史进程有着极其深远的意义。 由于哥特式建筑艺术本身就是西方文明的产物，存在语言方面的差距，再加上所学知识有限使得本文得出的结论具有局限性对于所取得的成就认识也较肤浅。更深层次的探讨和论证还有待继续深入的研究，我会在今后的学习中继续关注哥特式建筑艺术。
自考《欧洲文化入门试卷及答案练习题》
课程《欧洲文化入门》考试时间 120 分钟日期年月日姓名学号学院班级 Ⅰ.Read the following unfinished statements or questionas carefully. For each unfinished statement or question, four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D are given. Choose the one that you think best completes the statement or answers the question. Write the letter of the answer you have choosen in the corresponding spcae on the answer sheet. (40 points, 2 point for each) 1. ———— was the founder of scientific mathematics. A. Pythagoras B. Democritus C. Aristotle D. Diogenes 2. Which of the following figures was regarded as “the master of those who know”by Dante? A. Plato B. Socrates C. Aristotle D. Cicero 3. ________ was called “the greatest historian that ever lived”by Macaulay. A. Thucydides B. Herodotus C. Socrates D. Aristotle 4. The first king to unite the Hebrews was a warrior-famer name________ . A. Moses B. Joshua C. Saul D. David 5. Who issued the Edict of Milan in 313,whick granted religious freedom to all and made Christianity legal? A. Domitian B. Valerian C. Constantine D. Theodosius 6. The ancestors of the Jews are called Hebrews which mean ________ . A. wanderers B. travelers C. traders D. merchants 7. In the latter part of the fourth century the ________ swept into Europe from central Asia. A. Turkish B. Huns C. Athens D. Roman 8. Apart from being a place of worship, the ________ was a place for recreation and the center of trade and community activity. A. bridge B. church building C. village D. subway 9. For two centuries beginning from the late fifteenth century,________ was the golden city which gave birth to a whole generation of poets, scholars,artists and sculptors. A. Milan B. Florence C. Venice D. the papal states 10. which of the following figures knows “how to make beauty yield meaning and meaning
欧洲文化入门论文范文参考
欧洲文化入门论文范文参考 欧洲高等教育质量文化检查探析 摘要：欧洲在高等教育质量保障方面处于世界领先地位。由欧洲大学联合会于2021-2021年实施的“质量文化检查”是欧洲高等教育质量管理的新项目。此次检查通过对欧洲高校质量保障现状以及高校质量文化的调研，得出一系列重要结论，并以“质量文化”作 为一种反思性分析工具，对欧洲高校质量保障的“战略与政策”“工具与实践”“原则与 假设”等方面进行了审视，从而为欧洲高校质量文化的进一步建构奠定了较好的基础。 关键词：欧洲;质量保障;质量文化检查 一、“质量文化检查”项目实施背景 20世纪80年代和90年代被誉为欧洲高等教育的“质量时代”。在这段时间，欧洲各国开始探索和建立高等教育质量管理机构和评估制度，并逐步形成了以英国为代表的“中 介式”、以法国为代表的“中央集权式”、以比利时为代表的“二元结构型”、以瑞典为 代表的“委员会制”等各具特色的高等教育评估与质量保障制度[1]。成立于2001年的欧 洲大学联合会The European University Association更是欧洲高等教育质量运动纵 深发展的引领者。这些都使欧洲成为在国际高等教育质量管理方面具有重要影响的地区。 尽管20世纪90年代欧洲各国逐步建立了质量保障机构，但是人们认识到，高校在质 量保障方面承担着更重大的责任，应当通过内部质量文化的建立来促进战略性的管理。在 此背景下，欧洲大学联合会于2002-2021年实施了“质量文化项目”[2]，以便在大学建 立系统的质量文化保障体系，强化学校对构建内部质量文化和推进内部质量管理的必要性 的认识。 该项目选择“文化”一词作为核心词，是想表明“质量”这一概念既是一套共享的价值，也是高校所有人包括师生与管理人员的集体责任。在此，质量文化成为一种组织文化，它同时具有文化、心理因素以及结构、管理因素[3]。文化、心理因素指向一套共享的价值、信念、期待与奉献，这是高校每个成员的责任;结构、管理因素指向个体行为间的协调，这是学校的责任。质量保障程序是质量文化的结构性组成部分。相对于用以应对公众 绩效问责的外部评估程序而言，质量文化保障程序则用以促进院校自身的发展。 经过对40个国家近300所高校的三轮调研，欧洲大学联合会对质量与质量文化的概 念进行了大范围讨论，从战略、结构、内部评价程序与反馈回路、高级领导、学术与行政 人员、学生、外部利益相关者、数据收集与分析等方面讨论了质量文化的建设，得出了一 系列有价值的结论：质量是一个多层面的概念，必须在特定情景中予以理解和构建;院校 高度自治有助于形成成熟、有效的质量文化，将“质量”定义为持续提高，而自治度不足 的高校视野比较狭窄，往往把质量保障限定于“认证”，从而陷入服从性、官僚化等低效
欧洲文化入门中文版课件
第一章希腊罗马文化 希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源，所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节。我们先看希腊的发展。 希腊文明分为几个时期，她形成于公元前800－500年，经历了古典时代（也就是公元前500到公元前336年）和希腊化时代（也就是公元前336年到公元前31年）。希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪。公元前146年，希腊被罗马攻克。希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代。 这段历史的重要大事有： 1、公元前12世纪，随着特洛伊人的入侵，希腊堕入“黑暗时代”。荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争（《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》）。这里要注意的是，荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代。荷马生活在公元前700年。 2、公元前6世纪，希腊世界开始有了全面改变，为后来的古典时代打开了通途。其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达。雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会，公元前594年，梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官，他的贡献在于，在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础。雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位，是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用。历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述。 3、由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌，因而在公元前431
年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争。战争最终以雅典的失败而告终。修昔底得这位历史上最伟大的历史学家在其作品中，详尽描写了这一战争。 4、伯罗奔尼撒战争后，斯巴达专横跋扈，底比斯和雅典为求相互保护而结成新的联盟。公元前371年，马其顿国王腓力二世打败了底比斯和雅典联军，他的闻名世界的儿子亚历山大大帝统治了希腊。至此，古典时代结束，希腊化时代即将开始。 古典时代的希腊造就了一批哲学家和剧作家。哲学家主要以苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德为代表。苏格拉底提出自由辩论的重要性。柏拉图的目标是要实现一个既能维持贵族特权，又可为贫苦阶级接受的社会，并构件了唯心主义的根基。亚力士多德寻求自然界和人类社会各个方面的秩序。剧作家有埃斯库罗斯、阿里斯托芬、索福克勒斯。这一时期希腊也造就了像阿基米德和欧几里得这样的数学家，以及像希罗多德和修昔底得这样伟大的历史学家。 希腊的艺术和建筑在神庙上得到最高体现。著名的雅典卫城的圣地帕台侬神庙就是卫雅典娜女神建造的。 接下来我们从希腊文明走向罗马文明。 希腊化时代与罗马时代前期相互交融，最终过渡到罗马时代。罗马时代经历了早期共和国（公元前509－公元前264年）、后期共和国（公元前265－公元前27年）、早期帝国（公元前27年－公元284年）和后期帝国（284－476年）。公元前500年，
关于欧洲文化论文
关于欧洲文化论文 古希腊神话——欧洲文化的摇篮 古希腊神话大约诞生于公元前8世纪，传承至今，在历史的长河中魅力无穷。古希腊 神话详细描绘了希腊人民自古心中的诸神、自然和宇宙的神话。它的流传主要是靠古希腊 人民长期口头相传下来的。后来主要通过Homa's epic《荷马史诗》及古希腊的诗集、戏剧、哲学著作记载，传承下来。古希腊神话 包括了希腊神话中最重要的诸神开天辟地、神普关系等方面的故事，是有关希腊神话的早 期资料。古希腊神话不仅滋养了希腊本国的文化发展，而且在后世给予西方文化发展以不 可磨灭的推动作用和奠基作用。 一、古代欧洲文艺发展的源泉 古希腊神话是古代欧洲文学艺术兴起的源泉和土壤。世界著名的古希腊三大悲剧诗人 埃斯库罗斯、索福克里斯和欧利皮德思流传下来的三十四部悲剧中有三十三部是以神话为 题材的。现在人们可以在古希腊历史学家希罗多德的著作《历史》中收索到大量的原始的 古希腊神话。同时，古希腊神话为后期的罗马文学带来了无穷的素材资源和创作想象力。 比如说，在古罗马神话中，诸神的形象与古希腊神话相同，取名不同。如爱神的希腊名字 是Venus，罗马名字是Aphrodite;希腊神话中战神叫Ares，罗马名字则是Mars。在古希 腊奴隶制社会时期，古代欧洲的戏剧和文艺理论各方面都取得了巨大的成就。其中最具代 表性的是著名的古希腊文学家、哲学家柏拉图Plato和亚里士多德Aristotle。众所周知，柏拉图被誉为欧洲唯心主义哲学的奠基人。他的著作涉及哲学和文艺领域的心灵感应的命题，对后世文艺理论的形成影响深远。亚里士多德总结了希腊文艺创作的经验，开创了古 代文艺研究学独立而精辟的新领域。如文艺与现实的关系、悲剧的本质，他都发展了自己 的独立、完善的思想。他的著作The Poetics《诗学》为西方文艺理论的发展做出了重要的决定性的推动作用。 二、欧洲文艺复兴思潮的起源 希腊、罗马神话是世界文化瑰宝，通过后世手稿、传教士、学者和图书馆的保存及流传，最终传入欧洲。在欧洲文艺复兴时期，深刻地影响了欧洲文化的发展。一般认为西方 文化起源于两希文化，两希指的是希腊文化和希伯来文化。古希腊神话及思想从中世纪到 现代成为欧洲重要的思想源泉。欧洲文艺复兴的指导性思潮理论“人文主义”的来源其实 就是古希腊神话中体现的人本主义。可以说，文艺复兴就是打着复兴古希腊、罗马文化的 口号兴起的。古希腊神话以其“神人同形同性”的特点主张以人为中心的思想。在古希腊 神话中，神并非完美，诸神具有与人同样的情感、思想以及内心弱点。此外，神话中歌颂 的“英雄”在其有限的生命旅程中不懈的追求自由、胜利和理想。这充分体现了以人为本 的思想。而欧洲文艺复兴时期的人文主义是新兴资产阶级反封建反教会斗争中形成的思想 体系、世界观，也是这一时期资产阶级进步文学的中心思想。它主张一切以人为本，反对 神的权威，强调“人”才是万物理论的中心;宣扬个性解放，人类具有追求幸福生活的权
欧洲文化入门-中文版
《欧洲文化入门》的考试大致包括以下几种题型：四选一，填空，判断，简答题，名词解释，论述题。 选择题：这种题型可考查考生的记忆、理解、判断、推理分析，综合比较，鉴别评价等多种能力，评分客观，故常被应用。在答题时，如果能瞬时准确地把正确答案找出来最好，假如没有把握，就应采用排除法，即应从排除最明显的错误开始，把接近正确答案的备选项留下，再分析比较强以逐一否定最终选定正确答案。 填空题：这种题型常用于考核考生准确记忆的“再现”能力，在答题时，无论有几个空，回答都应明确、肯定，不能含糊其辞，填空题看似容易实则难，最好的应对办法是对英语语言知识中最基本的知识、概念、原理等要牢记。 名词解释：这种题型一般针对英语专业自考本科段课程中的基本概念、专业名词进行命题，主要考核考生的识记、理解能力。在答题时，答案要简明、概括、准确，如分值较大，可简要扩展。 简答题：这种题型一般围绕基本概论、原理及其联系进行命题，着重考核考生对概念、史实、原理的掌握、辨别和理解能力。在答题时，既不能像名词解释那样简单，也不能像论述题那样长篇大论，答案要有层次性，列出要点，并加以简要扩展就可以。 论述题：这种题型一般从试卷编制的全局出发，能从体现考试大纲中的重点内容和基本问题的角度来命题，着重考核考生分析、解决实际问题的能力，考核考生综合应用能力和创见性。在答题时，要仔细审题，列出答案要点，然后对要点逐一展开叙述，此时考生应发挥自己的真知灼见，要在深度，广度上下功。如果对哪些要点把握不大，时间又不允许多考虑，那就宁可多答一些要点，但应避免把不能说明问题或者与答案相矛盾的东西都写上。充分认识本课程的知识点的庞杂性，力求以乐观、耐心、仔细和勤奋的态度投入学习。 要研究欧洲发展的历史，我们要仅仅抓住两条线索。一条是社会文化发展线索，那就是希腊和罗马文化历史。另一条则是精神宗教形成线索，即犹太教和基督教历史。正如，想精通中国文化必先熟知孔夫子和道家文化一样。下面我们将分章节进行综述。在每章综述的最后，会有一两道重要的问答题分析。每章还会附有一些练习题，希望大家好好做一做。 好，下面我们开始分章讲述。 第一章希腊罗马文化 希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源，所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节。我们先看希腊的发展。 希腊文明分为几个时期，她形成于公元前800－500年，经历了古典时代（也就是公元前500到公元前336年）和希腊化时代（也就是公元前336年到公元前31年）。希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪。公元前146年，希腊被罗马攻克。希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代。 这段历史的重要大事有： 1、公元前12世纪，随着特洛伊人的入侵，希腊堕入“黑暗时代”。荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争（《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》）。这里要注意的是，荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代。荷马生活在公元前700年。 2、公元前6世纪，希腊世界开始有了全面改变，为后来的古典时代打开了通途。其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达。雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会，公元前594年，梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官，他的贡献在于，在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础。雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位，是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用。历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述。 3、由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌，因而在公元前431年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争。