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西方文化第一课讲义

Division One

Greek Culture and Roman Culture

European culture is made up of many elements, two of these elements are considered to be more enduring and they are the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian elements.

I. Greek Culture

1. The Historical Context

Ancient Greece was the birthplace of Western civilization about 2500 years ago. The magnificent achievements of the ancient Greeks in government, science, philosophy, and the arts still influence our lives.

Greek civilization developed chiefly in small city-states. A city-state consisted of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The Greek city-states were fiercely independent and often quarreled among themselves. But their small size and constant rivalry had certain advantages. Citizens of a city-state sere strongly patriotic, and many citizens took part in public affairs. The most advanced city-states established the world’s first democratic governments. The best-known city-states were Athens and Sparta.

The ancient Greek city-states never became united into a nation. However, a common language, religion, and culture bound the people together. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes and their land Hellas. They thought of themselves as different form all other people, whom they called barbarians.

The ancient Greeks prized their freedom and way of life. This way of life stressed the importance of the individual and encouraged creative thought. Greek thinkers laid the foundations of science and philosophy by seeing logical explanations for what happened in the world around them. Greek writers created new forms of expression, which explored human personalities and emotions. Greek civilization

reached its height in Athens during the mid-400’s B.C., a period of outstanding achievement known as the Golden Age.

In a remote period of Greek history, probably around 1200 B.C., a war was fought between Greece and Troy, a city on the Asiatic side of the Aegean ending in the destruction of Troy.

Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C. This was marked by the successful repulse of the Persian invasion early in the century, the establishment of democracy and the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens.

In the second half of the 4th century B.C., all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon.

In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece.

2. Social and Political Structure

Athens was a democracy. The Greeks loved sports. Once every four years, they had a big festival on Olympus Mount which included contests of sports. Thus began the Olympic Games. Revived in 1896, the Olympic Games have become the world’s foremost amateur sports competition.

3. Homer

Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics. Two such epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, have survived. The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy. The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home island of Ithaca.

4. Lyric Poetry

Of the many lyric poets of the time, two are still admired by readers today: Sappho and Pindar. Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece. Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games, such as the 14 Olympian odes.

5. Drama

The Greeks developed a powerful drama in the 5th century B.C. The three great tragic dramatists of ancient Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Aeschylus wrote such plays as Prometheus Bound, (Prometheus in Greek myths was a member of the earliest race of gods, called titans（泰坦神，巨人）. The god Zeus plotted to destroy humanity by depriving the earth of fire. Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to human beings. Zeus punished him by ordering him bound to a remote peak in the Caucasus Mountains（高加索山）. An eagle came to devour Prometheus’ liver every day, and the liver grew back each night. After Prometheus had suffered for many centuries, the hero Herules（大力英雄）killed the eagle and set Prometheus free.The Greek dramatist Aeschylus presented him as a tragic hero and a champion of humanity in his tragedy Prometheus Bound. The German composer Beethoven, the German author Goethe, and the English poet Shelley created works inspired by the Prometheus myth.) Persians, and Agamemnon. He is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry.

Sophocles, the author of plays like Oedipus the King, Electra, and Antigone contributed greatly to tragic art. He added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus. Sophocles has had a strong impact on European literature. Some of his plots were taken over and adopted by later writers. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud’s term “the Oedipus complex” was also derived from Sophocles’s play.

Euripides wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache, Medea, and Trojan Women. He was more of a realist than Aecschylus and Sophocles, concerned with conflicts. His characters are less heroic, more like ordinary people. He may be called the first writer of “problem plays”.

Comedy also flourished in the 5th century B.C. Its best writer was Aristophanes, who has left eleven plays, including Frogs, Clouds, Wasps, and Birds.

6. History

Herodotus is often called “Father of History”, wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. He had a keen eye for drama and pathos. His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable. Thucydides is more accurate as an historian. He told about the war between Athens and Sparta and

between Athens and Syracuse.

7. Philosophy and Science

Pythagoras was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers. He was the founder of scientific mathematics. Heracleitue believed fire to be the primary element of the universe, out of which everything else had arisen. To him, “all is flux, nothing is stationary.” Democritus was one of the earliest philosophical materialists and speculated about the atomic structure of matter.

The great names in European philosophy are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, who were active in Athens in the 5th and 4th century B.C. Plato was a very famous philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. He was the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, symposium and the Republic. Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. Plato argued that men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideals”, like beauty, truth and goodness. Only these “ideas” are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason, Plato’s philosophy is called Ide alism, and Plato was called idealist. Aristotle was Plato’s pupil. Of his numerous works, the following are still important to scholars and general readers alike: Ethics, Politics, Poetics and Rhetoric.

In the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other, they were the Cynics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans, and the Stoics.

The School of Athens

Euclid is well-known for his Elements, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.

Archimedes did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, mechanics, and hydrostatics. To illustrate the principle of the level, Archimedes is said to have told the king: “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”

8. Art, Architecture, Sculpture

Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric style which is also called the masculine style; the Ionic style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian style.

Doric style Ionic style Corinthian style

The Acropolis at Athens and t he Parthenon are the finest monument of Greek architecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years. Discus Thrower, Venus de Milo and Laocoon group are the famous sculptures.

The Acropolis at Athens Discus Thrower

9. Impact

Greek culture exerted the enormous influence on English literature, for example: a) Pindar had imitators, such as the 17th century English poet John Dryden. b) The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud’s term “the Oedipus complex” was derived form Sophocles’s play. c) In the 19th century, the English poetess Elizabeth Browning called Euripides “Euripides human”. d) In the e arly part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelly’s Hella and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn. e) In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.

Notes：

1.Troy 特洛伊，小亚细亚的西北部古城

2.Persian波斯的、波斯人的。

3.Sparta 斯巴达（希腊城市，古代拉哥尼亚军事重镇）

4.Alexander 亚历山大大帝。

5.Macedon 古马其顿

6.Iliad 《伊利亚特》，古希腊史诗，相传为荷马所作

7.Odyssey 《奥德赛》，古希腊史诗，相传为荷马所作

8.Agamemnon （希神）阿迦门侬，特洛伊战争中为希腊联军统帅。

9.Hector 赫克托尔，特洛伊战争中最勇猛的英雄。

10.Achilles （希神）阿克琉斯，又译“阿斯”

11. Cynic 犬儒主义者，愤世嫉俗者

12. Sceptic 怀疑论者。

13. Epicureans 享乐主义者。

14. Stoics 斯多葛派哲学家

15. Parthenon 帕台侬神庙，位于希腊雅典，于公元前五世纪建成，是祭雅典娜女神的神庙。

16. Acropolis 雅典卫城

17. Doric 陶立克式（建筑）

18. Ionic 爱奥尼亚柱型（建筑），尤指带有叶形饰的钟状柱顶的一类建筑。

II. Roman Culture

1. Romans and Greeks

The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. marked Roman conquest of Greece, which was then reduced to a province of the Roman Empire.

The Romans had a lot in common with the Greeks. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified---Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on --- and their myths to be fused. Their languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family which stretches from Bangladesh to Iceland.

There was one big difference. The Romans built up a vast empire: the Greeks didn’t, except for the brief moment of Alexander’s conquests, which soon disintegrated.

2. Roman History

In the year 27 B.C., Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus. Two centuries later, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in the North and East. The emperors mainly relied on a strong army---the famous Roman legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rule, which was facilitated by a well-developed system of roads. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is known as Pax

Romana.

Territories of Roman Empire

In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to The Roman Empire encircled

the Mediterranean, reaching

Scotland in the north and

spreading into Armenia and

Mesopotamia in the east.

Byzantium, renamed it Constantinople. After 395, the empire was permanently divided into east and West. In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by the Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire. The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.

3. Latin Literature

Cicero was noted for his oratory and fine writing style, described as Ciceronian. Julius Caesar recorded what he did and saw in the various military campaigns he took part in and these writings, collected in his Commentaries, are models of succinct Latin. Virgil was the greatest of Latin poets and wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.

4. Architecture and Sculpture

The Pantheon in Rome is one of the most She-wolf is the symbol of the city of Rome.

famous buildings in the world.

The Pantheon is the greatest and the best preserved Roman temple, which was built in 27 B.C. and reconstructed in the 2nd century A.D. Pont du Gard is an exceptionally well-preserved aqueduct that spans a wide valley in southern France. The Colosseum is and enormous amphitheatre built in the centre of Rome in imperial times. She-wolf is the statue which illustrates the legend of creation of Rome.

The Colosseum Pont du Gard

The Colosseum in Rome (70-82) is best known for its multilevel system of vaults made of concrete. This sturdy structure, which still stands, testifies to the remarkable engineering skills of the Romans.

Yet these same Romans created a civilization that has shaped subsequent

world history for 2,000 years. The remains of vast building projects, including roads and bridges, enormous baths and aqueducts, temples and theaters, as well as entire towns in the Nor th African desert, still mark Rome’s former dominion. Cities throughout Western Europe stand on Roman foundations. The Romans also had enormous cultural influence. Their language, Latin, gave rise to languages spoken by a billion people in the world today. Many other languages —including Polish, Turkish, and Vietnamese —use the Roman alphabet.

The Romans developed a legal system that remains the basis of continental

European law, and they brought to portraiture a lifelike style that forms the basis of the realistic tradition in Western art. The founders of the American government looked to the Roman Republic as a model. Modern political institutions also reflect Roman origins: senators, bicameral legislatures, judges, and juries are all adapted from the Roman system. In addition, despite recent modernization, the Roman Catholic Church still uses symbols and ritual derived largely from the ancient Romans.

Contrary to popular image, the Roman state was not continuously at war. Roman armies most often served on the frontiers of the empire while Roman lands nearer the Mediterranean were more peaceful and more culturally and economically interconnected than in any subsequent era. The Romans extended citizenship far beyond the people of Italy to Greeks and Gauls, Spaniards and Syrians, Jews and Arabs, North Africans and Egyptians. The Roman Empire also became the channel through which the cultures and religions of many peoples were combined and transmitted via medieval and Renaissance Europe to the modern world.

汉语注释

1.The Roman Empire 罗马帝国，一个以罗马为中心的横跨欧、亚、非三洲的庞

大帝国，公元前27年由屋大维将军建立。公元395年前后在北方日耳曼民族一些部落的冲击下，罗马帝国分裂为东、西两部分。西罗马帝国以罗马城为都城，东罗马帝国又叫拜占庭帝国，定都君士坦丁堡。公元476年，西罗马帝国灭亡。1453年，在土耳其人攻陷君士坦丁堡后，东罗马帝国灭亡。

2.the Pax Romana 罗马和平，即在罗马皇帝屋大维于公元27年掌权后的罗马和

平时期。罗马帝国统治下的这种和平持续了200年。

3.Constantinople 君士坦丁堡（伊士坦布尔的旧名）

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8a12943499.html,mentaries 凯撒的《高卢战记》

5.Aeneid 《伊尼德》，古罗马诗人维吉尔所作，记叙了伊尼德及其冒险活动，

其中主人公和迦太基女王狄多的恋情令人伤感。

6.Pantheon 罗马神殿

7.Colosseum 古罗马圆形大剧场，建于公元75年至公元80年

8.Pont du Gard 加尔河上的引水渠

9. She-wolf 女狼，古罗马著名雕刻

Assignments:

I. Interpretation

1. Aeschylus

2. Plato

3. The Cynics

4. Julius Caesar

5. The Pax Romana

II. Answer the following questions.

1.What are the major elements in European culture?

2.What were the main features of ancient Greek society?

3.Who were the outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece? What important plays did

each of them write?

4.Tell some of Plato’s ideas. Why do people call him an idealist?

5.Give some examples to show the enormous influence of Greek culture on English

literature.

6.What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chief

difference between them?

7.What is the book for which Virgil has been famous throughout the centuries? In

what way in the book linked with the Greek past?

8.Why do we say Aeneas is a truly tragic hero?

西方文化概论知识点整理

1.克里特文明：公元前3000-前1450年，是指地中海东部克里特岛的图带克里特人创造的文明，曾向希腊半岛、安纳托利亚的沿海地区和爱琴海诸岛进行文化辐射和殖民活动，并于埃及和地中该东岸地区有着广泛的贸易往来。迈锡尼文明：公元前1500-1100年，是希腊青铜时代晚期的文明，它由伯罗奔尼撒半岛的迈锡尼城而得名。迈锡尼文明是由一直来自北方的印欧语系游牧民族——阿卡亚人所建立，因此迈锡尼文明实际是北方游牧文化与克里特文明相融合的结果。二者对比：（1）迈锡尼文明不用于克里特文明的是迈锡尼本身充满好战气息因国防需要，宫殿建于山丘顶部，而艺术多作与军事有关的题材（2）文字：克里特文明：象形文字;迈锡尼文明：泥字版书（楔形文字的特点） 2.希腊神话的基本特征：希腊神话以形态优美、谱系分明而著称，希腊神话的神谱不仅仅是神的家族史，同时也反映了希腊人的宇宙生成观和自然观，神的衍生和交替也就是自然过程的发生和演进。以内在的自我否定作为神系延续和发展的契机是希腊神话的一个基本特征。希腊神话的影响：希腊神话反映了希腊的文化渊源；反映了希腊的生活习俗与精神意趣；反映了希腊人对自己的历史溯源；反映了希腊的历史的重大事件 3.希腊城邦制：早期的一种国家类型，以古希腊国家最为典型。分离主义的政治态度和自由主义的生活信念构成了希腊城邦社会的重要特征。特点：（1）小国寡民（2）多数以一个设防城市为中心，结合周围农区组成（3）具有一个小范围的，极端封闭的公民机制 4.希腊悲剧特点：（1）借用神话题材，以人与命运的斗争为主体，反映当时人民的生活图景和普遍关心的社会问题（2）着重表现主人公的英雄行为，整个气氛较为悲壮，凸显出崇高庄严的风格（3）有固定的结构程式和表现形式（4）最突出的是神人同姓同性。希腊悲剧基本上取材于神话与传说，以古代的英雄故事作为主要内容，以命运作为永恒的主题。希腊悲剧表现了自由意志与命运之间的冲突，它揭示了潜藏在个体(英雄或神)意志背后的某种不可抗拒的必然性。悲剧通过激起人们内心的怜悯和恐惧而导致情绪的净化和升华，从而使人体验到一种崇高的美感。 5.希腊喜剧特点：喜剧源于酒神庆典后街头白发的歌舞狂欢表演。与悲剧相比，喜剧更具有即兴性，况且喜剧往往显得散漫、粗俗，但却更加反映了普通民众真实的思想感情。 6.罗马与希腊文化的精神：希腊文化：（1）寻求生物与环境之间的和谐发展（2）激发好学精神与创造精神（3）喜好思想自由或自出思想（4）追求人生享受和现世娱乐的生活情趣（5）笃信人本主义，重视人和人的自身价值（6）崇奉中庸精神罗马文化的特征：（1）、英雄主义（2）、尚武精神（3）、享乐精神（4）、理性精神（5）、法律意识 7.基督教的两次分裂：东西分裂：君士坦丁一世迁都拜占庭埋下了东西教会大分裂的伏笔。公元395年罗马帝国分成东西两部分时，基督教也分为东部教会和西部教会两大支。公元7世纪末，罗马的拉丁教会和君士坦丁堡的希腊教会在礼仪和教义上的分歧加剧。1054年弥格耳分裂，基督教正式分裂为罗马公教（天主教）和希腊正教（东正教）。南北分裂：15世纪?第二次新旧教会大分裂(宗教改革)中,罗马公教分裂出信义宗(路德教派)、圣公宗(英国国教派)以及归正宗(加尔文教派)，基督教新教诞生 8.什么是十字军东征？原因和影响。含义：十字军东征是在1096年到1291年发生的九次宗教性军事行动的总称，是由西欧基督教（天主教）国家对地中海东岸的国家发动的战争。由于罗马天主教圣城耶路撒冷落入伊斯兰教徒手中，十字军东征大多数是针对伊斯兰教国家的，主要的目的是从伊斯兰教手中夺

西方文化概论考点汇总

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《西方文化概论》教学大纲

《西方文化概论》教学大纲一、基本信息二、教学目标及任务本课程为全校文法类各专业通识课。本课程将通过对古希腊文化、古罗马文化、中世纪基督教文化和西方近现代文化的讲解，使全校文法类各专业的本科生了解西方文化孳乳繁衍、发生进化的来龙去脉，掌握西方文化史中的一些重大事件和重要人物，认识不同时代的精神和文化状貌，为从不同专业的涉外部分的学习、进行中西比较、或直接学习研究具体领域的西方文化打下知识基础。三、学时分配四、教学内容及教学要求第一章古希腊罗马文化：爱琴文明与希腊神话传说习题要点：米诺斯文明, 迈锡尼文明, 希腊神话传说的源流,希腊神谱, 神谱的文化学意义，荷马史诗与“系统叙事诗”等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．爱琴文明与希腊城邦文明之间的文化联系。2．希腊神话的源流与谱系。本单元教学要求：了解古希腊罗马文化：爱琴文明与希腊神话传说，要求基本理解希腊罗马文化的发展脉络，掌握希腊罗马文化的特征。第二章古希腊罗马文化：希腊城邦文化

习题要点：希腊城邦的发展演变, 希腊城邦的崛起与殖民，早期希腊城邦的政治变革，斯巴达的政治与文化，雅典的政治与文化，从分离主义到帝国主义等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．希腊宗教的文化特点。2．希腊悲剧与喜剧的文化学意义。本单元教学要求：了解希腊宗教的文化特点。理解希腊悲剧与喜剧的文化学意义。掌握希腊哲学发展的基本梗概。第三章古希腊罗马文化：城邦文化的衰落与希腊化时代习题要点：希腊城邦文化的衰落，雅典民主制的蜕变，亚历山大帝国与希腊化时代，希腊文化精神的凋敝等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．希腊分离主义向帝国主义转化的历史契机。2．希腊化时代的文化特点。本单元教学要求：了解希腊城邦文化的衰落的过程，理解与掌握希腊文化精神的凋敝与希腊化时代的文化特点。第四章古希腊罗马文化：罗马帝国的兴衰习题要点：罗马政治制度演化与罗马帝国的扩张过程等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．罗马政治制度演化的基本情况。2．罗马帝国的扩张过程。本单元教学要求：了解罗马帝国的兴衰、罗马的起源、罗马帝国的扩张、罗马政治体制的演变、恺撒与奥古斯都，理解罗马帝国的衰亡过程与原因。第五章古希腊罗马文化：罗马文化的特征习题要点：希腊人与罗马人，罗马英雄主义，罗马的宗教，罗马法，罗马的哲学、文学艺术和科学，罗马世风的腐化等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．罗马文化与希腊文化的联系与差异。2．罗马帝国衰落的原因。本单元教学要求：了解罗马文化与希腊文化的联系与差异，理解与掌握罗马帝国衰落的原因。第六章中世纪基督教文化：基督教的早期发展习题要点：基督教的“两希”传统，基督教与希腊哲学，基督教与罗马帝国，苦难的历程，基督教的合法化与国教化，基督教与异教文化，修道运动，基督教与日耳曼族，罗马帝国时期的日耳曼人，蛮族大入侵，蛮族的皈依等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．基督教的“两希”文化渊源。2．基督教对日耳曼蛮族的教化。本单元教学要求：了解基督教的“两希”传统，理解与掌握基督教对日耳曼蛮族的教化（基督教与日耳曼族）等要点。第七章中世纪基督教文化：基督教与西欧封建社会习题要点：封建制与庄园经济，修道院经济，西欧封建社会的生活状况，西欧封建社会的政治格局，“神圣” 与“世俗”，十字军东征，“阿维农之囚”与罗马教会的衰落等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．中世纪西欧封建社会的基本特点。2．中世纪教俗之争的发展历程。本单元教学要求：了解与理解中世纪西欧封建社会的基本特点与中世纪教俗之争的发展历程。第八章中世纪基督教文化：中世纪西欧社会的文化概况习题要点：中世纪西欧社会的精神生活,教会与大学，中世纪的哲学，骑士精神与骑士文学，基督教唯灵主义与哥特式建筑等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．基督教信仰对于中世纪西欧精神生活的重要影响。2．中世纪基督教文化的精神特征。本单元教学要求：了解中世纪西欧社会的精神生活，基督教信仰对于中世纪西欧精神生活的重要影响。掌握中世纪基督教文化的精神特征。第九章中世纪基督教文化：中世纪基督教文化的衰落习题要点：信仰的衰落与道德的沦丧，教会的堕落，宗教裁判所，基督教文化的内在矛盾等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．中世纪赎罪方式的形式化和虚假化。2．基督教的本质精神与罗马天主教会的实践活动之间的尖锐矛盾。本单元教学要求：了解中世纪信仰的衰落与道德的沦丧，中世纪赎罪方式的形式化和虚假化，基督教文化的内在矛盾，基督教的本质精神与罗马天主教会的实践活动之间的尖锐矛盾。第十章西方近现代文化：文艺复兴与宗教改革习题要点：文艺复兴,人文主义,宗教改革等的具体内容。本单元重点、难点：1．文艺复兴运动与宗教改革运动的不同背景和目标。2．宗教改革运动对于西方现代化历程的客观影响。本单元教学要求：了解、理解与掌握文艺复兴运动与宗教改革运动的不同背景和目标，宗教改革运动对于西方现代化历程的客观影响，新教三大主流教派的基本情况。

西方文化与礼仪学生复习

西方文化与礼仪复习 I 名词解释 1、The Old Testament and The New Testament 旧约全书和新约全书 The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament”means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man. 2、The Middle ages中世纪 In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century. 3、Gothic哥特式建筑 ①The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe. ②It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history. ③The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式） 4、挪亚方舟根据圣经而来的故事。上帝看到人间充满罪恶，要用洪水把世界毁灭，重新创造人类。他让挪亚制造方舟，跟其他一些生物躲进方舟，逃避洪水浩劫。洪水过后，天上出现彩虹，这是上帝告示人类，洪水不会再发，愿挪亚的子孙繁衍昌盛。 5、天主教天主教是是基督教的主要宗派之一，又称公教。在基督宗教的所有公教会之中，罗马公教会的会众最为庞大，全世界人数有11.3亿，占世界总人口17%，因此“公教会”（天主教会）一词往往指的是“与罗马教宗共融的天主教会”，目前天主教会也是所有基督宗教的教会中最为庞大的教会。 6、莎士比亚四大悲剧和四大喜剧四大悲剧Hamlet（哈姆雷特）、Othello（奥瑟罗）、King Lear（李尔王）、Macbeth（马克白）四大喜剧是《仲夏夜之梦》》A Midsummer Night's Dream《皆大欢喜》As you like it《第十二夜》Twelfth Night《威尼斯商人》The merchant of V enice 7、文化中心主义文化中心主义，英文是ethnocentrism，亦称种族中心主义，指各个国家、各个民族都常有一种倾向，常易于将自己的生活方式、信仰、价值感、行为规范看成是最好的、是优于其他人的。 8、文化进化文化进化是指一个时间上持续的过程，这个过程具有累积性和进步性，经由次过程，文化现象便系统地组织起来发生变迁。进化是社会内部的发展引起的，如生产技术由低级到高

欧洲文化入门复习资料

1、Two major elements in European culture：the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element. 2、The Homer epics consists of the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece，led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy. The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. In the final battle，Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks. The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home island of Ithaca. It describes many adventures he ran into on his long sea voyage and how finally he was reunited with his faithful wife Penelope. 3、古希腊三大悲剧家：Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides Works of Aeschylus：Prometheus Bound，Persians，and Agamemnon .There are only two actors and one chorus in these plays. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry.Works of Sophocles：Oedipus the King，Electra，and Antigone （theme：the difficult choice between public duty and private feeling）. He has had a great impact on European culture. The Oedipus complex（恋母情结）、Electra（恋父情结）were derived from his plays Work of Euripides：Andromache，Medea，and Trojan Women. He was more of a realist than other two. His characters are less heroic，more like ordinary people. He may be called the first writer of “problem plays” 4.Herodotus is often called “Father of History”，wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians . His history is full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue. 5.Thucydides is more accurate as an historian. He told about the war between Athens and Syracuse ，a Greek state on the island of Sicily. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. Macaulay called Thucydides “the greatest historian that ever lived” 6.Pythagoras was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers. He was t he founder of scientific mathematics. 7.Heracleitus believed fire to be the primary element of the universe，out of which everything else had arisen. To him,“all is flux，nothing is stationary”. He alsosaid，“you cannot step twice into the same river；for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you. The sun is new everyday”he held the theory of the mingling of opposites and believed that it was the strife between the opposites that produced harmony. 8.Democtitus speculated about the atomic structure of matter. Indeed，he was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory. He was one of the earliest philosophical materialists and Marx`s first published work was a study of Democritus. 9Socrates taught Plato，who taught Aristotle. They were active in Athens in the 5th and the 4th century B.C. Socrates was known through Dialogues by Plato. Socrates liked to talk with people in the marketplace and in the streets ，asking and answering questions. He was ready to discuss anything in heaven and earth，specializing in exposing fallacies. When words like justice ，religiousness，virtue，wisdom，ect. Were used by others，he would ask the speaker to explain them and then dissect the answers to show how they were wrong and or illogical. This method of argument，by questioning and answering，has come to be known as the dialectical method. Plato showed himself a brilliant stylist，writing with wit and grace. His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. His other works: Apology（Socrates` defense of himself at the trial），Symposium （about beauty and love），and the Republic（about the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets） Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. It dealt with the problems of how，in the complex，ever —changing the world，men were to attain knowledge. The reply he gave was：men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general“ideas”，like beauty，truth，goodness. Only these ideas are completely real，while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason，Plato`s philosophy is called Idealism. Many of his ideas were absorbed into Christian thought Aristotle studied in Plato`s Academy for years. Later he became the tutor of Alexander the Macedonian King. In him the great humanist and the great man of science meet. On logic, moral philosophy，politics，metaphysics（形而上学），psychology，physics，zoology，poetry，rhetoric，he wrote epoch-making works，which dominated Europe thought for more than a thousand years. He did much to form，through his various and diverse interpreters，the philosophical，scientific and cosmological outlook of an entire world. Dante called him “the master of those who know” His works：Ethics（an introduction to moral philosophy），Politics，Poetics（a treatise on literary theory），and Rhetoric （dealing with the art of persuading an audience） Aristotle differed from his teacher in following ways：for one thing，Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato`s reliance on subjective thinking；also，he thought that “form”（idea）and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here ，he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world Aristotle thought happiness that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason，goodness and contemplation should be a man`s aim in life. 10.contending schools of thought:百家争鸣 The Cynics：got their name because Diogenes，one of their leaders，decided to live like a dog and the word “cynic”means“dog”in Greek. He rejected all conventions—whether of religion，of manner，dress，housing，food，or of decency. In fact，he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood，not only with the whole human race，but also with animals. On the other hand，he had no patience with the rich and the powerful The Sceptics （诡辩学家）followed Pyrrhon，who held that not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted t the truth of what others accepted as true. The Epicureans were disciples of Epicurus，who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life，but by pleasure he meant，not sensual enjoyment，but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval. This he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue. His teaching wa s misunderstood by later people and the word“Epicurean”has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living. Epicurus was a materialist. Opposed to the Epicureans were the Stoics. To them，the most important thing in life was not pleasure，but duty. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno. He was also a materialist，asserting the existence of the real world. He believed that there is no such thing as chance，and that the course of nature is rigidly determined by natural laws. In the life of an individual man，virtue is the solo good；such things as health，happiness，possessions，are of no account. Since virtue resides in the will，everything good or bad in a man`s life depends only upon himself. If he has to die, he should die nobly，like Socrates. Greek architecture three styles：a.the Doric style （masculine style. powerful, sturdy, showing a good sense of propotion）, the Ionic style(feminine style), the Corinthian style(oranmental luxury) There famous temples: the Acropplis at Athens, the Parthenon. The impact of Greek culture: a,The Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other Eruropean countries.b. The Greeks invented mathematics and science and phylosophy. Their spirt of innovation had immence influence in later generations c. The Greek is the birthland of the democracy. d.They set a great example of thinking rationally and logically. e. In literature, they have exerted an influence which can be still felt today. Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry, historical writing f.architecture, sculpture. Romans and Greeks异同：Common:a. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of cittizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility. b. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified-Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on-and their myth to be fused. c.Their languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family which stretches from Banglandesh to Iceland. Difference: a.The Romans built up a vast empire: The Greeks didn’t. b.The Romans were confident in their military and administrative capabilities. c.The Greeks enjoyed an artistic and intellectural inheritance much richer than the Romans. Roman peace: The emperors relied on a strong army-the famous Roman regions-and an efficient bureaucracy to exert their rule, which was facilitated by a well-developed system of roads. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of oece lasting 200 years, a remarkable phenomenon in history known as the Pax Romana. Virgil:The greatest of Latin poet, wrote the greatest epic, the Aeneid. Tragic hero: Aeneas was a truely tragic hero because to fufil his hitoric mission he had to betray the great passion of his life. While he gained an empire, his love for Dido, qyeen of Carhage. While he gained an empire, he lost something no empire could compensate, happiness in life. The Colosseum:斗兽场It is an enormous amphitheatre built in the centre of Rome in imperial times. It held more than 5000 spectatots. The relationship between Judaism and Christianity: They are closely related. the Jewish tradition gave birth to Christianity. Both originated in Palestine-the