现代语言学复习笔记

1/ What is linguistics?

什么是语言学？



Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.



2/ The scope of linguistics

语言学的研究范畴



The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)



The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）



The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）



The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）



The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）



The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）



The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）



The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）



The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）



The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.



Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）



3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念



Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写



If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.



Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.



Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时



The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.



Speech and writing 口头语与书面语



Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;

3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.



Langue and parole 语言和言语

Definition定义



Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。



Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.

形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。



1. Morpheme 语素



The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。



The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。



2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类



a) Free morphemes 自由语素



Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。



b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素



Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。



3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类



Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。



A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。



Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀



Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:

屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：



-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数

-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数

-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时

-ing, indicating progressive

aspect 表示进行时

-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级

-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级

-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格



Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。



实例：

Tolerate 词根toler- ＋ 词缀-ate

Quickly 自由语素quick ＋ 词缀-ly

Carelessness 自由语素care ＋词缀-less 形成的派生词careless ＋词缀-ness



Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀



Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.

前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。



The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.



Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.



Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用



Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.



He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.

1. The phonic medium of language

语言的声音媒介



Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.

For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of w

riting.

The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.



2．What is phonetics?

什么是语音学？



Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。



There are three branches of phonetics. They are:



Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.



Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.



Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.



3. Organs of speech

发音器官



The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throat

The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth

The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose



The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.



Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.



The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.



4. Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions

语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标



IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标



There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).



实例：



对pit/spit中p音的比较：

pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]

spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]



对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]

Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]

Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号

[II]



5. Classification of English speech sounds

英语语音的分类



a) Classification of English consonants

英语辅音的分类



按发音方式分

Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h]

Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV]

Liquid流音：[l] [r]

Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [N]

Glide滑音：[w] [j]



按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w]

Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v]

Dental齿音：[W] [T]

Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]

Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]

Velar软腭音：[k] [g] [N]

Glottal声门音：[h]



B) Classification of English vowels

1． What is Syntax?



Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。



2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统



Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.

The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。

任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。



3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成



A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整

的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。

The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.

主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。



4．Types of sentence 句子的类型



a) The simple sentence 简单句



A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。



b) The coordinate sentence 并列句



A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.

并列句包含两个子句，由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。



c) The complex sentence 复合句



A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.

复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。
1. What is semantics？什么是语义学？



Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.

语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。



2. Some views concerning the study of meaning

语义研究的几种主要理论



1) The naming theory 命名论



It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.

命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或

标记。



2) The conceptualist view 意念论



The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。



3) Contextualism 语境论



Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。

语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。



4) Behaviorism 行为主义论



Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.

语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。



3. Sense and reference 意义和所指



They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。



1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.

意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。

简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。



2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.

所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。

简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。



4. Major sense relations 主要意义关系



1） Synonymy 同义关系



Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的

词叫同义词。



According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:



a) Dialectal synonyms – synonyms used in different regional dialects.

British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language.

方言同义词 － 用在不同地域方言中的同义词。

英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。

示例：

英国英语 美国英语

1. Ethnic dialect 少数民族方言



a) Black English 黑人英语――少数民族方言个案研究



Black English is an ethnic variety of the English language. It is spoken mostly by a large section of non-middle-class American Blacks. Black English is stigmatized as “bad English”, a purely social attitude that has no linguistic basis. Like other varieties, Black English has some vocabulary of its own. It has a number of distinctive features in its phonological, morphological and syntactic systems which are rule-governed and systematic.

黑人英语是英语的一种变体，使用者多为身处社会下层的美国黑人。将黑人英语视为劣等英语是一种基于种族歧视的社会观，与语言学观相悖。黑人英语的语音、形态、句法和词汇系统有明显不同于标准英语的特征，但它符合“语言是规则系统”的原则，是语言规则操作的产物，有着明显的自律性和系统性。



黑人英语与标准英语的区别的具体内容见课本182－184页。



b) The social environment of Black English 黑人英语的社会环境



The assumption that Black English is “genetically inferior”, “deficient”, and “incomplete”, is simply ungrounded. The distinctive features of Black English persist not for racial reasons, but for social, educational, and economic reasons. Racial discrimination, accompanied by social isolation, intensified some dialectal differences between Black English and Standard English.

认为黑人语言是一种所谓的“天生劣等”、“欠缺性”、“非完整”的语言的观点是不正确的。黑人英语的区别性特征继续存在不是由种族因素造成的，而是由社会、教育和经济因素造成的。种族歧视和隔离政策加剧了黑人英语与美国标准英语之间的差异，也使黑人英语使用者难以融入美国主流社会。



2. Social dialect 社会方言



a) Education varieties 教育变体



Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes. The speakers of a social dialect usually share a similar social background.

Many differences in languages use persist for educational reasons. It is, therefore, important to know, for example, whether a group of speakers share similar educational backgrounds.

语言使用中的变体存在都是由教育因素造成的。

因此，了解一个说话者群体是否有相似的教育背景是重要的。

社会方言通行于有着相同社会背景的群体之中。社会群体的多样化决定了社会方言的多样化。受过相同教育的人往往使用相同的被称为教育变体的社会方言。例如，语言的高等教育变体和初等教育变体相比，更具有书面语的特征。



b) Age varieties 年龄变体



The way language is used correlates with the age of individual speakers. The importance of age as a social factor in language variation is strikingly demonstrated by children’s language as it develops with age. While some differences in pronunciation are found to correlate with different generation of speakers, the most striking differences are lexical.

语言变体带有使用年龄的烙印。使用语言的方式与说话者的年龄有关。年龄作为语言变异中的社会因素，其重要性可从随着儿童年龄的变化而变化的儿童语言中表现出来。尽管不同时代人的发音存在着一些差异，但更显著的差异是在他们的词汇上。



c) Gender varieties 性别变体



Variation in language use is also associated with the sex of individual speakers. Sex-preferential differentiation in terms of speech varieties of males and females exists in all natural language across the word. In particular, the intentional or unintentional use of sexist language in speech or writing reflects gender-biased cultural traditions in many societies.

语言使用中的变异与说话者的性别有关。从男性言语变体和女性言语变体方面来说的性别差异在全世界的各种自然语言中都存在着。特别是性别歧视语在口头语和书面语中被有意或无意地使用，反映出性别歧视的文化传统。



d) Register varieties 语域变体



Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, for that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学



1. The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础



a) The case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例



One afternoon in September 1848, a tragedy happed to Gage. A huge metal rod had gone through the front part of Gage’s brain, but his language abilities were unaffected.

The point of this amazing case is that, if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.

1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。

这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。



b) The human brain 人的大脑



The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body. Lying

under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called neurons.

人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。



The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary action. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.

大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。这一皮层是人体中做出各种决定的器官，它从各感受器官接受信息，并启动所有有意的动作。使人区别于其它哺乳动物的是人有很多认知能力，如复杂的推理、语言技巧和音乐才能，据认为都归因于这一皮层。



The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left. These hemispheres are connected like twins right down the middle by a number of interconnecting nerve pathways.

大脑可分为大致对称的两半，称为半球，一个在左边，一个在右边。这两个半球由一些起连接作用的神经路径从正中间像双胞胎一样连接在一起。



In general, the right hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.

总的来说，右半球控制左侧身体的有意动作，并对左侧身体发出的信号做出反应。而左半球反过来。



c) Brain lateralization 大脑的侧化



The left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls and spatial skills as well as the perception of nonlinguistic sounds and musical melodies. The localization of the cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.

人的大脑左半球主要负责语言，而右半球不仅支配着对非语言声音及音乐旋律的感知，而且支配着视觉和空间技能。认知功能和感知功能位于大脑的某一半球上被称为侧化。



Because each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is more accurate to conceive of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized.

由于大脑的每个半球都有独特的功能优势，因而更准确地说，两个半球的专长是互利的。



The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational. That is, brain lateralization is genetically programmed, but takes time to develop.

侧化的过程被认为是一种发育成长的过程。也就是说，大脑侧化在基因中已安排好，但需要

时间逐渐实现侧化。



2. Linguistic lateralization 语言侧化



a) Left hemispheric dominance for language 左半球的语言优势



Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemispheric dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority of human beings.

大脑侧化的一个显著特征是左半球语言侧化，即大脑左半球有着语言上的优势。大部分人的大脑左半球具有语言信息处理功能。



Although both right and left hemispheres are lateralized complementarily in many aspects of human cognitive and perceptual activities, language functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. Research has shown that different aspects of language processing appear to be more characteristic of the left hemisphere than the other.

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学



1. The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础



a) The case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例



One afternoon in September 1848, a tragedy happed to Gage. A huge metal rod had gone through the front part of Gage’s brain, but his language abilities were unaffected.

The point of this amazing case is that, if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.

1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。

这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。



b) The human brain 人的大脑



The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body. Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called neurons.

人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。



The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary action. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.

大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。这一皮层是人体中做出各种决定的器官，它从各感受器官接受信息，并启动所有有意的动作。使人区别于其它哺乳动物的是人有很多认知能力，如复杂的推理、语言技巧和音乐才能，据认为都归因于这一皮层。



The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left. These hemispheres are connected like twins right do

wn the middle by a number of interconnecting nerve pathways.

大脑可分为大致对称的两半，称为半球，一个在左边，一个在右边。这两个半球由一些起连接作用的神经路径从正中间像双胞胎一样连接在一起。



In general, the right hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.

总的来说，右半球控制左侧身体的有意动作，并对左侧身体发出的信号做出反应。而左半球反过来。



c) Brain lateralization 大脑的侧化



The left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls and spatial skills as well as the perception of nonlinguistic sounds and musical melodies. The localization of the cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.

人的大脑左半球主要负责语言，而右半球不仅支配着对非语言声音及音乐旋律的感知，而且支配着视觉和空间技能。认知功能和感知功能位于大脑的某一半球上被称为侧化。



Because each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is more accurate to conceive of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized.

由于大脑的每个半球都有独特的功能优势，因而更准确地说，两个半球的专长是互利的。



The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational. That is, brain lateralization is genetically programmed, but takes time to develop.

侧化的过程被认为是一种发育成长的过程。也就是说，大脑侧化在基因中已安排好，但需要时间逐渐实现侧化。



2. Linguistic lateralization 语言侧化



a) Left hemispheric dominance for language 左半球的语言优势



Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemispheric dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority of human beings.

大脑侧化的一个显著特征是左半球语言侧化，即大脑左半球有着语言上的优势。大部分人的大脑左半球具有语言信息处理功能。



Although both right and left hemispheres are lateralized complementarily in many aspects of human cognitive and perceptual activities, language functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. Research has shown that different aspects of language processing appear to be more characteristic of the left hemisphere than the other.

. The critical period for language acquisition 语言习得关键期



a) The critical period hypothesis 关键期假设



The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language an

d language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.

关键期假设指的是人一生中大约从两岁到青春期这一时期，在这一时期内，大脑处于准备学习某一语言的最佳状态，学习语言既容易又快，且不需要刻意的教导。



It is generally thought that the development of lateralization in the brain may be connected to the language learning abilities of children in that critical age fro the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period of brain lateralization.

一般认为，大脑的侧化过程可能与儿童的语言学习能力有关，因为第一语言学习的关键期与大脑的侧化区一致。



It is believed that language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are connected, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end. It becomes progressively more difficult to acquire language after the age at which lateralization is complete.

一般认为，语言习得和侧化过程大致同时开始，而且就语言要点而言，到侧化过程终结的时候，语言习得通常也完成了。在侧化完成的年龄之后，习得语言变得越来越难。



b) The case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age

吉妮案例与语言机制的退化



The case of Genie confirms the critical period hypothesis.

A safe conclusion that we can draw from Genie’s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.

吉尼案例为人类是否有一个语言习得关键期提供了积极的作证。一名叫作吉尼的美国儿童出生后第20个月起被父亲单独囚禁起来，与世人隔绝。吉尼在13岁半被人解救出来之前失去了习得语言的机会。吉尼在过了习得临界期后开始学习母语，至今尚未完全习得英语。吉尼案例表明，人类的语言习得机制具有生理属性，即有一个生理的成熟期，也有一个生理的退化期。普通人的语言机制在关键期后退化，因而他们无法掌握大部分语言技能。



2. Language and thought 语言与思维



a) Early views on language and thought 有关语言与思维关系的一些早期观点



Early views on language and thought include two contrasting views: mentalist and empiricist.

Mentalist stated that language and thought were the same thing. Thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking. That is, when we “think aloud”, it is called speech; when we “speak covertly”, it is called thinking.

Empiricist argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experience.

有关语言与思维的早期观点主要为相互对立的两种理论，即心灵论与经

验论。

心灵论者认为语言与思维是统一体，思维和说话涉及相同的运动神经的活动。也就是说，言语是我们的“有声思维”，思维是我们的“无声言语”。

经验论者认为，语言与思维非统一体，语言只是心理上的经验，人类有着不同的语言，人类语言的不同是因为人类心理经验的不同。



b) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设



The American anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed a sweeping, two-pronged hypothesis concerning language and thought.

美国人萨丕尔及其弟子沃尔夫提出的有关语言与思维关系的假设是这个领域里至今为止最具争议的理论。



Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得



1. First language acquisition 第一语言习得



a) The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础



Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.

Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.

语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。

儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。



b) Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得



Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.

语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。这并不意味着必须习得一种语言的语法体系的所有规则。儿童习得的是一些一般的原则，这些原则使口头语能合乎语法的基础。



c) The role of input and interaction 语言输入与交流的作用



Although human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is not a sufficient condition for language development. For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic enviro

nment which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input.

虽然人的语言习得的能力是由遗传决定的，但这种先天遗传并不是语言发展的充分条件。要最终习得语言必须给儿童提供适当的环境，使儿童可以接触到语言信息并有机会用输入的语言进行交流。



d) The role of instruction 语言教学的作用



For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.

对绝大多数儿童而言，语言发展是本能进行的，几乎不需要成人刻意的传授。事实上，父母向儿童传授语法规则徒劳无益。



e) The role of correction and reinforcement 纠错与强化的作用



Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.

纠错和强化并不是儿童语言发展的主要因素。强化通常出现在儿童的发音和转述事实方面，而不是句子的语法方面。



f) The role of imitation 模仿的作用



Selective imitation suggests that children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted way to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.

选择性的模仿说明，儿童不是鹦鹉学舌般地模仿成人语言，而是对之加以有限的利用提高其自身的语言技能。结论是，模仿在儿童的语言学习中所起的作用不大。



2. Stages of first language acquisition 第一语言习得的发展阶段



a) The prelinguistic stage 前语言阶段



The earliest sounds produced by infants cannot be considered early language. The noises such as cries and whimpers of the new born in all language communities sound the same. Such noises are completely stimulus-controlled.

婴儿最早发出的多种声音不能算是早期的语言，是前语言阶段。无论哪个语言社区的新生儿都发出同样的声音。这些声音全部是应激性的。



b) The one-word stage 独词句阶段



At some point in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year, the babbling stage gradually gives way to the earliest recognizable stage of language, often referred to as the one-word stage.

1. The development of the grammatical system 语法体系的发展



a) The development of phonology 音系学的发展



It’s suggested that even before children master the phonemic contrasts of their language, they begin to develop the articulatory movements needed to produce these dis

tinctions in speech.

儿童在掌握其语言的音位对立之前，就已经开始了这些相对的音所需要的发音实践。



As they develop their native language, children must master a systematic set of patterns and learn how to fit given sounds into those patterns.

儿童在习得母语的同时，必须掌握一套系统的模式，并学会将特定的语音纳入这些模式中。



Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stage acquire the “more difficult” sounds.

儿童无论处于何种语言环境，他们最初习得的语音是全世界各种语言所共有的，而一些“较难”的语音则在以后阶段习得。



It has been noted that certain sounds that occur in babbling are lost when children begin to speak the language, and then reappear at a later stage.

人们注意到，儿童开始说话后，一些咿呀学语阶段的语音暂时消失了，以后又会出现。



b) The development of syntax 句法的发展



As children produce sentences that more and more closely approximate the adult grammar, they begin to use functional words as well as inflectional and derivational morphemes of the language.

随着儿童的语言越来越接近成人语法，他们开始使用其语言中的屈折因素、派生词素和功能词。



c) The development of morphology 词形的发展



Children’s early words are simply a bunch of bare stems without affixes. By the time they are going beyond the telegraphic stage, children’s begin to incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of nouns and verbs used. –ing/-s/-ed.

儿童早期的用词仅有词干，没有词缀。到多词句阶段后，儿童开始使用一些体现所用名词和动词语法的屈折性词素。如-ing/-s/-ed等。



d) The development of vocabulary and semantics 词汇与语义的发展



It is estimated that during the first two years, a child have a very limited vocabulary ranging from 50 to 100 words.

儿童在出生后的两年里，词汇量极为有限，一般在50到100个单词之间。



At this stage, the semantic referent of a word expands. Overgeneralization can be observed in children’s acquisition of the semantic system, as they acquire more and more words, the “over-generalized” meaning narrows down.

在这个阶段，词义有泛指的特点。儿童习得语义体系有过度概括的情况，随着词汇量的增长，过度概括消除。



By the age of two and a half years, children’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and they are actually initiating more talks. By five, children’s utterances average about 4.6 words per sentence, and their vocabulary increases by about twenty words each day.

Six-7800

Eight-17600 (28000 if derived forms included)

两周岁半的儿童

的词汇量迅速增长，他们的话语实际上也增多了。五周岁时，儿童每句话平均大约有4.6个单词，而且词汇的增长达到日均20个。

六周岁时词汇量可达7800个。

八周岁时词汇量可达17600个，若包括派生形式，则为28000个。



In general, children have virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six. It is agreed that the pre-school years are a crucial period for first language acquisition.

一般来说，儿童在五六岁时，实际上已经掌握了其母语的基本结构。现在已有这样的共识：对儿童而言，学前阶段是第一语言习得的关键时期。



2. Second language acquisition 第二语言习得



a) Acquisition and learning 习得与学习



Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

习得指的是日常交际环境中通过自然的运用第一语言能力而逐步地、下意识地发展这种能力。



Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

a) The role of input 语言输入的作用



It is evident that SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input.

很明显，学习者只有接受到第二语言输入并有机会纳入输入信息时，才能进行第二语言习得。



b) The role of formal instruction 正规教学的作用



A great number of adults learn a second language through formal instruction. Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.

大多数成年人通过正规教学来学习第二语言。正规教学就是教师在课堂上设法提高学习者对目的语语言规则的特点的认识，从而帮助他们学习第二语言。



Although it is found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wide range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition.

尽管正规教学对第二语言习得的自然发展轨道的影响微乎其微，但它却为接受可理解的语言输入信息提供了机会，这样就使得课堂学习者比自然学习者能完成更多的语言学习任务，从而加快语言习得的进度。



Studies suggest that formal instruction may not easily influence a particular type of language task, such as casual and spontaneous conversation, but it may help learners perform other types of tasks, such as those associated with planned speech, writing or career-oriented examination.

研究

表明，正规教学对一种特殊的语言学习任务，如自然随意的对话影响不大，但却有助于学习者完成其它学习任务，如有准备的发言、写作或职业考试。



c) Individual learner factors 学习者的个人因素



It is known that there is no uniform way in which learners acquire the knowledge of a second language. There are a number of factors pertaining to the learner that potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired. The learner factors include age, aptitude, motivation, personality, and cognitive style.

学习者在习得第二语言知识时，没有统一的方式，这一点已成定论。可能影响第二语言习得方式以及和学习者自己有关的因素有很多，主要包括：年龄、领悟力、学习动机、个性以及认知方式。