跨文化视野下中美时间观念的研究分析(英文版)

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Abstract

Because of the differences in geographical location, daily habbits and history, a variety in Chinese and Western cultures, especially in Chinese and American cultures have evolved. Time concept differences of Chinese and American are directly caused by the two regions’people holding many different values in their daily lives, studies, and work. Some people are born with an impatient personality, while others with a slow temperament. Some people are always very punctual, while others may be frequently late to appointments. These differences are reflected in Chinese and American different time concepts. In the following paper, supported by scientific sources and researches, the author will discuss the time concept of Chinese and American in cross-cultural communication, and try to avoid cultural conflicts.

Keywords: Chinese and American cultures; time concept; cross-cultural communication

摘要

由于地域、日常习惯和历史的差异，孕育出了多样化的中西方文化，尤其是中美文化。中美时间观念的差异就是由两地的人们在日常生活、学习或工作中许许多多不同的价值观念所产生的。有的人天生就是急性子，而有的人却从小就是慢脾气。有的人守时，可有的人常迟到。这些都反映出中美人们不同的时间观念。在下文中，笔者将结合一些科学的研究资料探讨跨文化交际中的中美时间观以避免文化冲突。

关键词：中美文化；时间观念；跨文化交际

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Contents

1. Introduction (1)

2. Literature review (1)

2.1 The definition of time concept (1)

2.2 The importance of time concept in cross-cultural communication (1)

3. The differences in Chinese and American time concept (2)

3.1 The line-type time outlook and the round-type time outlook (2)

3.1.1 Americans’ line-type time outlook (2)

3.1.2 Chinese’s round-type time outlook (3)

3.2 Mono-chronic time and poly-chronic time (4)

3.2.1 Americans’ mono-chronic time concept (5)

3.2.2 Chinese’s poly-chronic time concept (7)

3.3 Chinese’s past-time orientation and Americans’ future-time orientation (8)

3.3.1 Chinese’s past-time orientation (8)

3.3.2 Americans’ future-time orientation (10)

4. The crasis of Chinese and American time concept (12)

4.1 People’s consciousness of time thrift is strengthening (12)

4.2 Past-time orientation is turning into future-time orientation (13)

5. Conclusion (14)

References (15)

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1. Introduction

This paper aims to explore differences in Chinese and American time concepts and culture. The author hopes this paper can, to a certain degree, give the readers a clear understanding about the people’s concept of time in the two regions. The study on the concept of time is to help us to understand cultural differences and help us carry out effective international communication, improve cross-cultural awareness, reduce barriers to cross-cultural communication and the misunderstanding resulting from the different concept of time as much as possible, and avoid “cultural conflict” or “time conflict” in cross-cultural communication.

2. Literature review

2.1 The definition of time concept

Time concept is evolved from the process of people understanding and transforming the world. Time concept will remain relatively stable for a fairly long period. According to Liu Xifang(2009), time concept refers to the different awareness and understanding towards time. It is not only a basic factor in the environment of human activity, but also a deep-seated cultural part of the social srtucture. It is shaped naturally through the long-period practice of human being and the long-period historical progress. It reflects the attitude of people towards time. At the same time, it also reflects the way that people deal with time and utilize time. Everyone has his or her own concept of time. Therefore, different people, especially the people in China and America have different concepts of time.

2.2 The importance of time concept in cross-cultural communication

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As global economic integration moves on, Chinese-American cultural communication and integration become more frequent. Understanding different cultural concepts of time improves cross-cultural awareness and reduces barriers to cross-cultural communication. Avoiding “cultural conflict” or “time conflict” become more and more important.

If people only recognize and adhere to their own concept of time and neglect understanding and respect to the time concept of other cultures, there would arise many misunderstandings. We should acknowlegde that people from Chinese and American cultures hold different attitudes towards time and the method of using time. Then we should overcome the ethical cultural centrism and reduce the misunderstanding of different concepts of time as much as possible. The time orientation under different cultures should get respect and recognition. When there is a conflict in the time concept, we can not simply jugde it as good or bad. Cultural communication is a process of understanding from one culture to another. Therefore, in order to deepen mutual understanding, it is necessary to adopt a liberal attitude.

3. The differences in Chinese and American time concept

3.1 The line-type time outlook and the round-type time outlook

According to Guan Shijie (1995:285), time outlook can be divided into round-type time outlook and line-type time outlook, Americans belong to line-type time outlook, while Chinese people belong to round-type time outlook.

3.1.1 Americans’ line-type time outlook

In American eyes, time is like a river which flows straight to sea from the headstream. Once

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time has gone, it will never come back. So Americans cherish time so much. The American hero Benjamin Franklin said “Do you love life? If love, don’t waste your time, because life is made up of time.”

The American culture with Jewish Christian tradition usually regards time as a straight line and a linear continuous one-way movement. Time is moving, time is going by, time is both precious and obstinate, once gone it can never be restored. They also believe that time has beginning and ending too, and time can be measured by the clock or calendar. Everything is accurate to every minute, or even milliseconds. Time in American society is almost a commodity. It is real and valuable, it can be bought and sold, you can save and you can waste time. Y ou can lose and you can borrow time. Time can be manufactured and can be measured. American popular magazines often publish related articles with such proposal that how people can use time efficiently on shopping, cooking, cleaning house, raising children, and flower gardening. In the United States, “New Y ork Times”column on the business, there is an author who has claimed himself as “efficiency expert”, he recommends an effective way to utilize time and make the next day’s development activities plan when sleeping by the mobilization of the unconscious. He said such a way can make full use of sleep time, rather than waste. The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:

“Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.”

“Time and tide wait for no man.”

“Ake hay while the sun shines.”

“Tomorrow never comes.”

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3.1.2 Chinese’s round-type time outlook

The special way that the farm-based easterners carry through exchanging material with nature has been dominant in the whole economic life of all society. Such a rural civilization regards people and nature as interrelated, and regard the world as an organical whole. The result is the Oriental Society’s “Man and Na ture”round-type time concept. This means that time changes in harmony with natural rhythm, which is a movement that moves eternally and cyclically along its arc and spiral, such as alternating in day and night, seasons’ back and forth, month’s rotating, age’s changing, plant’s cycle growth, labor’s farming seasons turnover, are self-movement reverting in cycles (Jia Yuxin, 1977:71). This concept of time as four seasons: reincarnation and endless cycling make Asians look very rich in terms of time, they can use more discretionary time to do anything without worrying. For example, if the school teacher haven’t finished an important element of text, he would drag a period of time to finish it after class; There are few people who mention the time in Chinese wedding invitations, people can come to dinner late separated by an hour long with the early ones, so a feast can last even two or three hours. Appointment time to see our friends is hardly determined. For example, if there is a friend who has not been seen for a long time, and want to see you during weekend, maybe you should stay home all day,and wait for him to come.

3.2 Mono-chronic time and poly-chronic time

According to observation, Edward.T. Hall（1983：42）has divided the using of time in different cultures into two classifications, one is monochronic time system; the other is polychronic time system (Hall, 1982: 16). The society within heavy industry, in general, adopts

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the monochronic time system. They just arrange the line of time strictly, arrange things in a certain piece of time without changing so easily under the arrangement. They like to do things efficiencily. The polychronic time is the heritage of traditional agricultural society, people like to do several things together in a same time.

3.2.1 Americans’ mono-chronic time concept

The Americans are used to doing only one thing in a certain time, so they like to plan time carefully and thoughtfully. Therefore, calendars, schedules, diaries, annuals and accounting ledgers play an important role in the American society. To some extent, it extremely controls the social activities of people, it decides what they do or don’t do at any moment, what must be done first, what should be done finally. Americans are controled by the clock tightly, they even regard themselves as the slave to nothing but the clock. Just like Hall said “In the Western world, nobody can get out of the control of mono-time system. In fact, society and bussiness life, even the sexual behavior are in the control of time. Time makes the people’s total life net.” (Hall, 1982: 20). This can be found out from the bussiness activities in the cross-cultural communication. Americans demand to deal with things according to time table. As the Americans cherish time so much, they belive:

“Time is money.”

“Punctuality is the politeness of princes.”

“Punctuality is the soul of business.”

“Time works wonders.”

“Time works great changes.”

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3.2.1.1 Making plans

Making plans before doing things is a common habbit in America. Words like “schedule”and “agenda”, are used widely in American life. Because Americans like to make plans in advance, they do everything by complying with the arrangement. As soon as they find they are not following the schedule, they will get very uneasy and try best to quicken the speed.What’s more, Americans usually calculate time in minutes or seconds, they are controled deeply by clock.

Americans always plan what should be done next in their mind s in advance. Appointment and schedules are very important to members of monochromic cultures. People are concerned about it not being disturbed. They do everything by their agenda. Once the time they plan is over, they will stop whatever they are doing at once. Then do what they plan to do next. When people plan an event, they often set the time days or weeks beforehand. Once the time is fixed, it takes almost an emergency to change it. If people want to come to your home for a friendly visit, they will usually make a call to make sure whether it is convenient. If you don’t do like this, Americans would think that you are not polite, because sudden visit would upset their plans. According to an investigation, some foreign teachers in China often complain that they are not informed in advance. Classes exchanging, class-canceling, and sports meeting, often are informed in the last minute. Sometimes, without consulting with them, they ask them to lecture or record. For these matters, they feel unhappy because they do not like the last minute notice (Hu Xiaoqiong，2000: 1). So Chinese people are easier to “go with the flow” than Americans who like plans to be fixed and unchangeable. Influenced by time thrift, Americans treat time

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seriously. If they cannot plan their time properly, they will be looked down upon by others.

In businesses, “Time is money”, everyone follows set agendas. Minutes are spent at meetings that are precisely scheduled. North Americans take pride in finding time to spend with family and friends when juggling busy work schedules.Generally speaking, if Americans have arranged his time for study at home, he will not change his plan. Americans often make every day’s plan, every week’s plan, and even every year’s plan. Once the plan is arranged, they will not change it.

In English, we often hear these expressions, “My agenda for today starts with…”“Place on the agenda,”“Map out a schedule,”“Accomplish some thing according to schedule.”Once Americans find themselves are behind the schedule, they become pressured. Then they do their best to speed up. As E.T.Hall (1959:20) said, “They slave to nothing, but the clock.” In America, the clock not only masters people’s social life, but also other aspects of life. The time clock records the hour we must work, the school bells move us from class to class, and the calendar marks important days and events in our lives. In a word, clock decides what should be done in advance. The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:

“Affairs that are done by due degrees are soon ended.”

“Forewarned is forearmed.”

“Preparedness ensures success, unpreparedness spells failure.”

“Preparedness ensures security; unpreparedness invites disaster.”

“To be wise is to think everything beforehand.”

3.2.1.2 Keeping watch

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Keeping watch is another common habbit in America. In Americans’views, going to meeting on time is to go without saying. The behavior of coming late is very impolite. No matter whether the appointment is personal or public meeting, if you are late for it, you will be regarded as a lazy person, and you will lose trust from others. In the personal intercourse, you may lose your friends; In the work, you may lose the chance to get promoted.

3.2.2 Chinese’s poly-chronic time concept

Because the Chinese culture is good at the integration, it is usually thought that Chinese adopt the polychronic time system. People can plan several things at the same time, and also do these things together. Chinese think that the whole thing in the world develop and change with the change of time. So people prefer to do things in a good chance, that is each step of action is decided temporarily by the surroundings. So that, the whole work in the arrangement will be disturbed easily by other things. It shows that there is much less fixing time before meeting, and friends or relatives needn’t to fix time before going to visit each other. In some official departments, the staff can chat, read newspaper, when they work.If the work has not been done in the first day, he can go on to do it in the second day. Also, the salesperson can settle accounts with the first customer. At the same time, he takes out the goods to let the second customer look, even say hello to the third customer. This is what Americans disagree with and can’t accept.

3.3 Chinese’s past-time orientation and Americans’ future-time orientation

Our fixation with time and the power we give it are rather obvious. “Time is kindly god”(Samovar, Porter, Stefani, 2000: 76). As is the case with most of the issues discussed in this paper, cultures vary widely in their concept of time, what they differ lies in the value placed on

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the past, present, and future and how each influences interaction.

3.3.1 Chinese’s past-time orientation

China has a past-time orientation culture. Past time orientation of a person either to the past to heart, towards the past, things like what happened on just the same or attention to the old life, repeatedly restated thing of the past. China is one of the world’s four ancient civilizations. A splendid cultural heritage of 5,000 years, with ancient, old means respected. Experience and qualifications in the social life is very important, old age is a sign of wisdom. As the saying goes: “Do not listen to elders, suffer in the eyes.”Before do things, people always ask the older generation of experience learned with an open mind. Linked to this is the worship of ancestors, respect for teachers, re-experience, re-aged.

In the present, past and future, these three relevant dimensions of time exist, however different nations hold different opinions. Experienced the farming culture, Chinese approach to look back past orientation, they are living in a tradition-oriented Society. People cherish the past with clear reverence. Past experience and lessons are always an important reference to judge the success or failure of something today. The future is not as interesting as the past, because it is unknowable and elusive. And relatively, people worship their ancestors and respect teachers, like doing things by citeing the track and source. Because these things are associated with the past. This is why people call the teachers “old d ivision”, for the sake of “The old ginger is hotter”. This past orientation, also affects Chinese people's national character. Generally speaking, China is a society which seeking static stability. Unity and stability are the top priority of each dynasty and the guarantee of social development; “sin gle-mindedness”, “Contentment is happiness”,

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“Ancient book is thick”, “Good deed goes unpunishedly”, “ance stors of the law can not change”and other ideas are the manifestation of seeking stability and past orientation without exception.

The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:

“Act according to circumstances.”

“A wreck on shore is a beacon at sea.”

“An old poacher makes the best keeper.”

“An old oven is easier to heat than a new one.”

“An old establishment never wants customers.”

“Lessons learned from the past can guide one in the future.”

“Predict the future by reviewing the past.”

“The overturned cart ahead is a warning beforehand.”

“The old ginger is hot.”

“The older one grows, the more one learns.”

“Rules that ancestor decided can not be changed.”

“To forget the past is to betray.”

3.3.2 Americans’ future-time orientation

Chinese culture is different from the United States which is dominated by the future-time orientation culture. All future-time orientation focus on the future, the future direction of their important values. Christian in Western countries believe in “evil human nature,” From the impact of eating the forbidden fruit and the guilt of original sin, human lost paradise and came to earth to suffer blame. For Americans, there is no back way, but only moving forward, constantly moving forward. There is hope to fight with the future through their own efforts. It is not difficult

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future are to adopt the con cept of different ideas. Thus, “pun ishment as a deterrent,”in English should be: Learn from the past mistakes to avoid future ones.

Life in the United States is fast-paced. There are fast food restaurants, overnight delivery services, shuttle services, instant cash machines, fast weight loss plans, and even instant minute rice. Avi dly following such sayings as, “The early bird gets the worm.” and, “First come, first served.” North Americans even have their meals in an efficient manner. Microwaves help make their early breakfasts, lunches, and five-o'clock dinners.

Americans, by contrast, rarely look back but all look to the future, so future Orientation is their important value. Americans, generally do not pay attention to other people’s history and tradition. Equal opportunity for all, history is insignificant. If you work hard, you can be successful, the American dream is mammoth. They think the future is manageable , or at least can be under their control. The present is just to prepare a better future. It is generally considered change means progress, new things are always better than the old. Therefore, very few Americans worship ancestors. Age and experience may not be worthy of admiration. Each person should rely on his struggle to change the destiny. With the impact of this future orientation, Americans in general are more active and optimistic, they like breaking the routine. Under the two cul tures, people use “before” and “after” to describe the past and the future. They may almost take different views. Chinese people are faced with the past to see if the problem would be “never been done before, or since”, “unprecedented”, “s uccessors”and “not end”, while Americans are just the opposite. Americans are getting ahead of the story but Chinese

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should be expressed as going behind the story. Another example in English is the latest news translated into Chinese can not be said to b e the “last message”, but only s hould speak of “news”and the story dates back to two hundreds years ago. I t is “story takes place two years a go.” Time orientation of different culture makes the American perception of “old age”, “old”, these words will make a difference. China is a system-oriented society, people of the age, weight and experience, are a symbol of wisdom and authority. So for the Chinese words like “old” and “b ig”pay tribute to Chang, such as “Old Mr. Chang, your first call.” and “Big brother, you have the final say.” But this praise will not work in the American culture, because in their hearts, “old”means youth is past, it is synonymous with uselessness.

The following proverbs reflect their time view of welcoming innovation and change.

“A change is as good as a rest.”

“A man who will never change his mind is he who has no mind to change.”

“All glory comes from daring to begin.”

“Boldly attempted is half won.”

“Do not take your harp to the party.”

“Let bygones be bygones.”

“New things are most attractive.”

“An old dog will learn no new tricks.”

“Changing is charming.”

“A mill can not grind with the water that is past.”

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4.The crasis of Chinese and American time concept

Times are changing, so is our time concept. With the development of economy, advancing of society and the increasing cross-cultural communication, people’s time concepts influence each other. With China’s entry into WTO and the integrity of global economy, Chinese people’s time concept begins to change. The following two aspects show the time concept change of Chinese people.

4.1 People’s consciousness of time thrift is strengthening

In old times, people take traditional agricultulture as major industry. Their consciousness of time concept is very weak. With the development of market economy and improvement in the level of industrialization. People’s consciousness of time concept is strengthening and the concept of time thrift is improving. The concepts that time is money and time is life are going deep into everyone’s heart. The pace of people’s life is speeding up. People begin to respect other people’s time. They will not distu rb others’time at will. Everyone knows that every minute counts. The following proverbs reflect people’s consciousness of time:

“All time is no time when it is past.”

“Wasting time is robbing oneself.”

“To save time is to lengthen life.”

“Life is a shuttle.”

“No can call back yesterday.”

“He who gains time gains all things.”

“Believe each day to have drowned as your last.”

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4.2 Past-time orientation is turning into future-time orientation

With the coming of new century, our society is changing. International competition is increasingly fierce. To any nation, there is no way to survive if looking to the past. A nation is hopeless unless the people of the nation look forward. The traditional concepts of emphasizing age and experience of Chinese people have been challenged. The concept of originating and advancing with time has moved deep into everyone’s heart. In brief, everyone is making plan for the future. Now, the time concept based on efficiency has been accepted. The following proverbs reflect their time concept:

“Abandon the old to meet the new.”

“Change for the better day by day, and month by month.”

“Weed out the old to let the new emerge.”

“One is able and wise who understands the current political situation.”

5. Conclusion

In above content, we have compared the different time concepts between Chinese and Americans. To some extent, time concepts reflect different cultural values. People’s time concept is regarded as a nation’s peculiar cultural heritage. It is gradually formed from a long time and is relatively stable for a long period of time, but it is not immutable. It changes with the change of times and cultures. So when people from different nations communicate with each other, they should be aware of the different time concepts, and then make the communication successful.

Different concept of time affects the smooth progress of cross-cultural communication,

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people's different attitudes and the corresponding time of the different social habbits tend to impede effective communication. Time reflects people's psychological orientation, how to adjust their attitude is very important for effective communication. Successful intercultural communication requires mutual understanding of each culture on the time orientation and attitude of the time.

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