Enlightenment Background

Background

The Age of Enlightenment ,or simply the Enlightenment, is an era from the 1650s to the 1780s in which cultural and intellectual forces in Western Europe emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority.

The scientific and intellectual developments of the 17th century fostered the belief in natural law and universal order and the confidence in human reason that spread to influence all of 18th-century society.

Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. Currents of thought were many and varied, but certain ideas may be characterized as pervading and dominant. A rational and scientific approach to religious, social, political, and economic issues promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress and perfectibility.

It challenged the authority of institutions that were deeply rooted in society, especially the Catholic Church; there was much talk of ways to reform society with toleration, science and skepticism.

The Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.

Philosophers including Francis Bacon and Fran?ois-Marie Arouet influenced society by publishing widely read works.

Representatives

Born on January 18, 1689, in Bordeaux, France, Montesquieu was trained in the classics as well as the law. He was a French lawyer, man of letters, and political philosopher who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world.

Montesquieu's most influential work divided French society into three classes : the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons. The administrative powers were the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. Montesquieu argued that the best way to secure liberty and prevent a government from becoming corrupted was to divide the powers of government among different actors who would check each other. Montesquieu warned that “Were the executive power not to have a right of restraining the encroachments of the legislative body, the latter would become despotic; for as it might arrogate to itself what authority it pleased, it would soon destroy all the other

powers.”

Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws was "the first consistent attempt to survey the varieties of human society, to classify and compare them and, within society, to study the inter-functioning of institutions." Montesquieu's political anthropology gave rise to his theories on government.

Significance

The Enlightenment contributed a lot to many aspects. Firstly, , a showcase of different ideas. The ideas of social equality, human right and liberty and atheism无神论had spread all over France and Europe, greatly shaking the foundation of royal autocracy and its status in people’s minds, which stimulated the critical spirit. Secondly, the Enlightenment provides the theoretical and ideological preparation for the arrival of the French Revolution. The Encyclopédie had widespread influence as an expression of progressive thought and served as an intellectual prologue序言to the French Revolution. Thirdly, the Encyclopédie was a showcase for representatives of the new schools of thought in all branches of intellectual activity.

英国文学5 The Enlightenment

Literature in the Enlightenment 1 The Enlightenment as an intellectual movement 2 Neo-classicism 3 Literary achivement: Poet: Alexander Pope Prose writers: Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele , Samuel Johnson Dramatist: Richard B. Sheridan Novelists: Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift The Maturity of the English Novel: Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding The Enlightenment 1 It is a progressive intellectual movement throughout Western Europe including England, Germany especially France where there were Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau in 18th century and in Russia in the 19th century. 2 Enlighteners believe that chief ways of improving a society was enlightenment or education for people. In other words, they believed in the power of reason, and that is why the 18th century is called “the age of reason”. 3 Deism and materialistic philosophy were widely accepted. 4 two groups: --conservative ones, partial reforms Pope, Defoe, Addison and Steel and Richardson --radical, resolute democratization in management of government. Swift, Fielding and Sheridan 5 Three major periods of the Enlightenment: a: 1688-end of the 1730’s neo-classicism Pope, Addison, Steele, Defoe and Swift b: 1740’s-1750’s(The Maturi ty of the English Novel) Richardson, Fielding c: last decade of the 18th century sentimentalism and Pre-romanticism Neo-classicism --a type of classicism --They regarded classical literature of ancient Greek and Roman writers as models. --It dominated English literature from 1660 to the 18th century. --They believed artistic ideas should be orderly, logic, accurate and restrained emotion. --Poetry -- lyrical, epical, didactic, satiric or dramatic Prose --- precise, direct, smooth, and flexible Drama --- in heroic couplet, the three unities of time, space and action should be strictly observed.

Unit 3 Education – Enlightenment of Mind

Unit 3 Education – Enlightenment of Mind I. Warm-up Audio script We usually think that school is the only place where people get an education. However, what we get from school is just a small part of what we learn. Education includes both formal learning at school and informal learning in society. So education is much broader than schooling. Education can take place anywhere, whether in the street or at a party. Likewise, educators can be anyone, ranging from an elderly woman in the neighborhood to a young reporter on TV. The general patterns of teaching at school always remain relatively the same. Students arrive at school at the set time and take the assigned courses. The learning materials and the tests used at school are limited. We know what we can get from school education, but we can never give a full picture of what we can expect from education. For instance, while travelling if you have a chat with a local shopkeeper, you may discover more about local culture. Education starts from the moment a person is born. It lasts for a lifetime and becomes part of his/her life. II. Listening for content 1. Listening to a conversation

文学史名词解释

文学史习题 1.What is the theme of “A red red rose”? The theme of A Red, Red Rose is the praise of love, the true and everlasting love. Robert Burns is leaving his love and intends to reassure her of his fidelity and love for her in his absence. The poem expresses love, but it does not try to stir up deep feelings of passion, instead, it reminds readers of love, making the speaker's feelings sound more theoretical than real. In the first stanza, the word "Luve" is used twice as a pronoun, describing a particular person that the speaker has in mind. By talking about this person, the poet draws attention to the other person and to how he relates to that person, rather than examining his own emotions. This raises the impression that the love affair might be more for show, for the approval of other people, than for the experience of it. In "A Red Red Rose" Burns is telling us what the epitome of love is to him. The similes he uses are meant to show us the grandness of love. He compares his love to a rose and to a melody, showing us that love is beautiful and precious. Burns also shows us how love is not fleeting; that if it really is love it will always be there no matter how near or far the two people may be from each other. The vivid images, direct similes, simple expressions, and regular meters and rhyme make this poem popular beyond us later generations. 名词解释：9个 1. Romance（名词解释）Romance: Any imagination literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with a heroic adventures and battles between good characters and villains or monsters. Romanticism:A movement that flourished in literature, philosophy, music, and art in Western culture during most of the 19th century, beginnigogom. 2.Ballad（名词解释）Ballad: A story told in verse and usually meant to be sung. In many countries, the folk ballad was one of the earliest forms of literature. Folk ballads have no known authors. They were transmitted orally from generation to generation and were not set down in writing until centuries after they were first sung. The subject matter of folk ballads stems from the everyday life of the common people. Devices commonly used in ballads are the refrain, incremental repetition, and code language. A later form of ballad is the literary ballad, which imitates the style of the folk ballad. Ballad（民谣）：it is a song, transmitted orally, which tells a story. It originated and was communicated orally among illiterate or only partly literate people. It exists in many variant forms. The most common stanza form, called ballad stanza is a quatrain in alternate four- and three-stress lines; usually only the second and fourth lines rhyme. Although many traditional ballads probably originated in the late Middle Age, they were not collected and printed until the eighteenth century. Ballad stanza: A type of four-line stanza. The first and third lines have four stressed words or syllables; the second and fourth lines have three stresses. Ballad meter is usually iambic. The number of unstressed syllables in each line may vary. The second and fourth lines rhyme. 3. Heroic couplet (名词解释) Heroic Couplet（英雄双韵体）refers to lines of iambic pentameter

Enlightenment 英国文学史启蒙运动

The 18th century 1．Enlightenment Intellectual movement an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. against class inequality, stagnation, prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They attempted to place all branches of science at the service of mankind by connecting them with the actual needs and requirements of people. 2. Classicism balance, proportion, decorum and restraint attributed to the major works of ancient Greek and Roman literature 3．Difference 17th and 18th Classicism 17 please the declining aristocracy 18 for the rising bourgeoisie to tidy up the capitalist social order. 4．Joseph Addison and Richard Steele essayists Richard Steele and The Tatler "The Tatler", to enlighten, as well as to entertain, his fellow coffeehouse-goers. contained several essays. in a conversational style Joseph Addison and “The Spectator“ "The Spectator", a daily paper, was a collaborative project by Addison and Steele together. it contained a gallery of vivid portraits of the members of the so-called "Spectator Club". supposed to be edited by a small club headed by Mr. Spectator The most striking features of the paper are the character sketches of Mr. Spectator and the members of his club，and these sketches become the forerunner of the modern English novel. They attempted to improve manners and moral contribution 1. new code of social morality for the bourgeoisie. 2. picture of the social life 3. the English essay had completely established itself as a literary genre. Using it as a form of character sketching and story-telling, they ushered in the dawn of modern English novel. 5.Alexander Pope most important English poet,representative of the Enlightenment,one of the first to introduce rationalism to England,master in satiric and didactic verse An Essay on Criticism heroic couplet, aesthetic theories. a comprehensive study of theories of literary criticism. . Essay on Man heroic couplet, indicates political and philosophical viewpoint The Rape of the Lock mock-heroic poem, in which he satirized the triviality and silliness of the high society with a delicate wit. The Dunciad the Iliad of Dunces Pope was also an editor of Shakespeare's plays. the poet laureate桂冠诗人 an outstanding enlightener and the greatest English poet of the classical school 6、Jonathan Swift master satirist The Battle of the Books satirical dialogue on the comparative merits of ancient and modern

what is enlightenment

Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere Aude! [dare to know] "Have courage to use your own understanding!"--that is the motto of enlightenment. 启蒙就是人类从自我造成的不成熟状态中解脱出来。不成熟是指缺少他人的教导就没有能力运用自己的理智。这种不成熟状态之所以是自我造成的，其原因不在于缺少理智，而在于没有他人的教导就缺乏运用自己理智的决心和勇气。Sapere Aude! [要勇于认知] “要有勇气运用你自己的理智！” ——这就是启蒙运动的格言。 Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why so great a proportion of men, long after nature has released them from alien guidance (natura-liter maiorennes), nonetheless gladly remain in lifelong immaturity, and why it is so easy for others to establish themselves as their guardians. It is so easy to be immature. If I have a book to serve as my understanding, a pastor to serve as my conscience, a physician to determine my diet for me, and so on, I need not exert myself at all. I need not think, if only I can pay: others will readily undertake the irksome work for me. The guardians who have so benevolently taken over the supervision of men have carefully seen to it that the far greatest part of them (including the entire fair sex) regard taking the step to maturity as very dangerous, not to mention difficult. Having first made their domestic livestock dumb, and having carefully made sure that these docile creatures will not take a single step without the go-cart to which they are harnessed, these guardians then show them the danger that threatens them, should they attempt to walk alone. Now this danger is not actually so great, for after falling a few times they would in the end certainly learn to walk; but an example of this kind makes men timid and usually frightens them out of all further attempts. 人类中之所以还有如此众多的人，即使自然早已将他们从疏离的外在教导中解脱出来（因自然方式而成熟），却依然心甘情愿地终身安处于不成熟状态之中，其原因就在于懒惰和怯懦，这也是为什么另一些人能够轻而易举地把自己标举为他们的监护者。处于不成熟状态可真是轻松安逸啊。如果我有一本书来充作我自己的见解、有一位牧师来充作我自己的良心、有一名医生来替我自己决定合理的食饮，等等等等诸如此类的，那我又何必要自己劳心费神，那完全没有必要了。我无需思考，只需要有能力支付：其他人就会欣然应命帮我把那些伤脑筋的讨厌活儿全都包办了。仁慈慷慨地担负起治理民众之任的监护者们小心翼翼地看护着，以确保民众中的绝大部分人（其中包括全部的女性）视通往成熟之路为畏途，充满了风险，更别说困难重重了。在首先使他们驯养的牲口缄默无声之后，在确信这些温顺的生灵们即使被撤去拴缚在身上的络辔也不会再挪移一步之时，一旦它们试图想要独自迈步，这些监护者们就会向它们指出种种的威胁。这危险现在看来实际上并没有那么严重，因为在跌倒几次之后，人们最终一定能够学会自己走路的；但诸如此类的示例却让人们心生胆怯，通常就会把他们进一步尝试的所有企图全都吓退了。 Thus, it is difficult for any individual man to work himself out of the immaturity that has all but become his nature. He has even become fond of this state and for the time being is actually incapable of using his own understanding, for no one has ever allowed him to

What is Enlightenment

IMMANUEL KANT An Answer to the Question: "What is Enlightenment?" Konigsberg in Prussia, 30th September, 1784. Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's own understanding without the guidance of another. This immaturity is self-incurred if its cause is not lack of understanding, but lack of resolution and courage to use it without the guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is therefore: Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding! Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why such a large proportion of men, even when nature has long emancipated them from alien guidance (naturaliter maiorennes), nevertheless gladly remain immature for life. For the same reasons, it is all too easy for others to set themselves up as their guardians. It is so convenient to be immature! If I have a book to have understanding in place of me, a spiritual adviser to have a conscience for me, a doctor to judge my diet for me, and so on, I need not make any efforts at all. I need not think, so long as I can pay; others will soon enough take the tiresome job over for me. The guardians who have kindly taken upon themselves the work of supervision will soon see to it that by far the largest part of mankind (including the entire fair sex) should consider the step forward to maturity not only as difficult but also as highly dangerous. Having first infatuated their domesticated animals, and carefully prevented the docile creatures from daring to take a single step without the leading-strings to which they are tied, they next show them the danger which threatens them if they try to walk unaided. Now this danger is not in fact so very great, for they would certainly learn to walk eventually after a few falls. But an example of this kind is intimidating, and usually frightens them off from further attempts. Thus it is difficult for each separate individual to work his way out of the immaturity which has become almost second nature to him. He has even grown fond of it and is really incapable for the time being of using his own understanding, because he was never allowed to make the attempt. Dogmas and formulas, those mechanical instruments for rational use (or rather misuse) of his natural endowments, are the ball and chain of his permanent immaturity. And if anyone did throw them off, he would still be uncertain about jumping over even the narrowest of trenches, for he would be unaccustomed to free movement of this kind. Thus only a few, by cultivating the;r own minds, have succeeded in freeing

Enlightenment (简体中文)

Enlightenment (简体中文) Enlightenment - Enlightenment 的描述： Enlightenment桌面环境基于 Enlightenment Foundation Libraries 与其他基本的如文件管理器、桌面图标和部件等的桌面环境组件，提供了一个高效而又惊艳的窗口管理器。它的优势在于：在提供了前所未有的定制主题的能力的同时仍然能在老旧的硬件和嵌入式设备上运行流畅。 Contents ? 1 Enlightenment Desktop Shell (之前的 E17) ? 2 安装 o 2.1 使用 extra 仓库 o 2.2 从AUR安装 ? 3 启动 Enlightenment o 3.1 startx o 3.2 Entrance o 3.3 其它 ? 4 配置网络 o 4.1 connman o 4.2 NetworkManager ? 5 配置输入法 o 5.1 ibus ? 6 安装主题 ?7 Modules and Gadgets o7.1 Places o7.2 缩放窗口 7.2.1 Engage ?8 集成 Gnome Keyring ?9 故障及解决办法 o9.1 屏幕解锁不工作 o9.2 难以分辨的字体 o9.3 无法挂载内部分区 ?10 相关链接 Enlightenment Desktop Shell (之前的 E17) 包括 Enlightment 窗口管理器和提供了如工具包、对象画布和抽象对象等额外的桌面环境特性的 Enlightenment Foundation Libraries(EFL) 。从 2005 年开始开发，并在 2011 年 2 月发布第一个稳定的 1.0 发行版。Enlightenment 窗口管理器已于 2012 年 12 月 21 日发布，EFL 库的 1.7.4 版也同期发布。目前很多人可以毫无障碍地将 Enlightenment 作为日常桌面环境使用。

The_Dialectics_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth is radiant with triumphant calamity. Enlightenment’s program was the disenchantment of the world.* It wanted to dispel myths, to overthrow fantasy with knowl-edge. Bacon, “the father of experimental philosophy,”1brought these mo-tifs together. He despised the exponents of tradition, who substituted be-lief for knowledge and were as unwilling to doubt as they were reckless in supplying answers. All this, he said, stood in the way of “the happy match between the mind of man and the nature of things,” with the result that humanity was unable to use its knowledge for the betterment of its con-dition. Such inventions as had been made—Bacon cites printing, artillery,and the compass—had been arrived at more by chance than by systemat-ic enquiry into nature. Knowledge obtained through such enquiry would not only be exempt from the influence of wealth and power but would establish man as the master of nature: Therefore, no doubt, the sovereignty of man lieth hid in knowledge; wherein many things are reserved, which kings with their treasure cannot buy, nor with their force command; their spials and intelligencers can give no news of them, their seamen and discoverers cannot sail where they grow: now we govern nature in opinions,but we are thrall unto her in necessity: but if we would be led by her in invention,we should command her by action.2 The Concept * of Enlightenment

adorno and horkheimers idea of enlightenment

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE This article was downloaded by: [Australian National University Library] On: 9 May 2010 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 907447645] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37- 41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK British Journal for the History of Philosophy Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b75506989.html,/smpp/title~content=t713694220 ADORNO AND HORKHEIMER'S CONCEPT OF 'ENLIGHTENMENT'Y. Sherratt To cite this Article Sherratt, Y.(2000) 'ADORNO AND HORKHEIMER'S CONCEPT OF 'ENLIGHTENMENT'', British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 8: 3, 521 — 544 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/096087800442165 URL: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b75506989.html,/10.1080/096087800442165 Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b75506989.html,/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

the enlightenment

Returning to Nature Rousseau’s thought of “returning to nature” is not only the supplement and expansion of the enlightenment, but also enlighten the spirit of the rationalism. Thinking over the nature has led to the second wave of modernity, and changed the focus of the enlightenment, which was concerned about political civilized order and ecological reflection in contemporary situation. “Returning to nature” has made eternal significance on individuals and groups in the modern society. Also it is unable to avoid problems of the construction of ecological culture. The paper aims to find out the influence of Rousseau's “returning to nature” to modern society. It seems that the relationship between Rousseau and the enlightenment is very complex. During the period of rapid advances in the enlightenment, Rousseau found the nature of internal rivalry in civilization itself and the enlightenment crisis in possible. As a result, based on the concept of nature of civilization, he began to make fierce criticism. And this criticism is the critical spirit of profound enlightenment. The end of the enlightenment is n’t the beginning of Rousseau's criticism, which beyond the enlightenment. It’s the first time in modern history has revealed the crisis of modernity. Rarely can thinkers draw attention and controversy in the long history, however, Rousseau is one of the rare. Especially in the 20th century, learners have more intensive debates on knowledge of Rousseau's thoughts, and evaluation. He was called an enlightenment thinker, however, someone regards him as the enlightenment of the opponents; some people say that he is the son of the freedom, others thought of him as a liberal enemy; some people respect him as a democracy advocates, he was accused of the thought source of totalitarian... These opinions vary on the performance in the debate both the richness and complexity of Rousseau thought, proving his thoughts have the lasting vitality. Of course, there is no denying that Rousseau is only one in history, but differs in society. Rousseau's thoughts showed painfully uniqueness from the start. As the sensitive young, he is completely different from contemporary enlightenment thinker who thought of the rational thinking and progress as the core thought. So they believe that the development of the art and science is to promote social progress and human happiness "the most powerful weapon, is also objected to the oppression of ignorance, superstition, fantasy, and brutal system... the most sharp weapon". By contrast, Rousseau noticed the progress of civilization itself have intrinsic properties. He accused the progress of the art and science not only did not promote the progress of spirit, but led to moral degradation, which predicted if the enlightenment can not overcome their own one-sidedness, it