语言学教程复习资料 胡壮麟

第一章

1.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

2.Design features of language

①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)

②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)

3. Functions of language

① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)

② Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)

③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)

④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (Health, weather)

⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)

⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.

4. What is linguistics?

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

5. Important distinctions in linguistics

Descriptive & prescriptive

Synchronic & diachronic

Langue & parole

Competence & performance

6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)

Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)

7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)— description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)

第四章

1．What is Syntax （句法）?

Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to

form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则

2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观 (Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观

3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.

4. Parts of speech

Traditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.

5．The term Category范畴 in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:

the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.

6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.

Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数

Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs

7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.

In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.

8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系

In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格

In English, the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order

9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.

Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the ve rb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.

10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体） and Imperfective（进行体）

Perfective and Progressive (in English)

11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subject

Passive被动语态 and active主动语态

12. Concord and government

①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.

②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in

a sentence.

In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.

13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出

14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系

15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.

16.An endocentric construction (向心结构) is a construction that contains:

1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;

2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.

17.them e (主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listener

The linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.

subject, predicate (grammatical side)

theme, rheme (functional side)

第五章

1. What is Semantics?

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科

2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:

①Conceptual meaning概念意义

②Connotative meaning内涵意义

③Social meaning社会意义

④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）

⑤Reflected meaning反射意义

⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义

⑦Thematic meaning主位意义

3.Conceptual meaning (概念意义) i s also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系

Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.

4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word

Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.

5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的

6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：

① The Referential Theory

② The Semantic Triangle

③ Sense and Reference

7.The referential theory 指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论

8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的

9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.

10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.

11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represents

Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.

12. Sense Relations涵义关系

①Synonymy（同义关系）

②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）

③Hyponymy（上下义关系）

13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.

14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)

15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.

16. Sentence Meaning

17. Sense relations between sentences

① Synonymity (同义)

a. He was a bachelor all his life.

b. He never married all his boy.

Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence

②Inconsistency (矛盾)

a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.

b. Elizabeth II is a man.

Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.

③Entailment (蕴涵)

a. He married a blonde heiress.

b. He married a blonde.

Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.

④Presupposition (前提预设)

It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.

⑤Contradiction (矛盾)

⑥Semantic anomaly (语义反常)

18. An integrated theory

﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.

﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics

﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules

﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words

﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.

19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）

﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.

﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.

﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.

第七章

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/ba4342509.html,nguage and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and Culture

2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论): the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.

Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P162

3. Relation between Language and Culture

Language influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by language

Culture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterations

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/ba4342509.html,nguage and Society

Relation between Language and Society

Varieties of language（Dialects、Registers）

Bilingualism and Diglossia

Pidgin and Creole

5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.

6.Dialectal Varieties ：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、 Language and gender、 Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）

7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.

8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.

9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.

10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.

11.Halliday’s Register Theory

Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.

Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、 tenor of discourse (语旨)、 mode of discourse (语式)

12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.

13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.

14．A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for

communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s language.

15.A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.

第八章

1.What is Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.

2 Semantics and Pragmatics

Similarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaning

Difference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments

4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：① Performatives and Constatives② A theory of the illocutionary act

5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative (行事话语)。

6.A constative (述事话语) is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false.

7Characteristics of Implicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality

8.Calculability(可推导性): means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.

9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则)If the factors that conversational

implicature relied on change, the implicature will also change.

10.Relevance Theory关联理论

Communicative Principle of Relevance：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.

Cognitive Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(第二语言和外语教学)【圣才出品】

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版).

英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the

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Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word

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2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出 排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音 10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are