英语语法教案 (Lecture 16 Subjunctive Mood)

Lecture 16 Subjunctive Mood

Teaching Aims

(1) To understand the definition of mood and classification of mood

(2) To grasp the use of subjunctive mood

Teaching Process

(1) Definition and classification of mood

(2) Use of subjunctive mood

a. subjunctive mood used in if conditionals

b. subjunctive mood used in that clause

c. subjunctive mood used in special patterns

1. Definition of mood

Different speaker may express different purpose. When he expresses different purposes, he may use different moods of expressions.

2. Classification of moods

2.1 Indicative mood: expressing statements or facts.

e.g. We are all students.

China is in Asia.

2.2 Imperative mood: putting forward demands or orders.

e.g. Please be careful.

Don?t smoke her e.

2.3 Subjunctive mood:

Definition: expressing subjective wishes or hypothetical and non-factual meaning

3. Classification of subjunctive mood

3.1 Be- subjunctive mood

1)be is used in “that clause” containing the meaning of order,

decision, suggestion.

a)use d in “that clause” after the verbs: decide, decree, demand,

insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request,

require, suggest, vote…

b)used in “that clause” after the adjectives: advisable,

appropriate, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important,

impossible, necessary, obligatory, proper…

c)used in “that clause” after the nouns: decision, decree, demand,

instruction, order, requirement, resolution…

2)be is used in “that clause” introduced by “if, though”

be- subjunctive mood can be used in that clause introduced by “if,

though, whatever, lest, so long as…”, such sentences have the

meaning of “speculation, concession, or precaution…”

3)be is used in some formula sentence patterns to express “wish,

curse, or prohibition”

e.g. Long live the People?s Republic of China!

God bless you!

God damn you!!

Heaven forbid!

Devil take him!1

So be it!

Suffice it to say that…

Far be it from me to spoil the fun.

He will remain here if need be.

Home is home, be it ever so homely.

3.2 were- Subjunctive mood

1)used in some adverbial clause

used in conditional or concessive adverbial clause introduced by “if, if only, as though, though…”

2)used in some noun clause

used in the clause introduced by “wish, would rather, suppose, imagine…

4. The use of subjunctive mood

4.1 subjunctive mood used in if-conditional

A conditional sentence (or “conditional” for short) is commonly composed part: conditional clause + main clause. Despite the many possible sequences of verb forms in conditionals, the following four types represent perhaps the commonest and the most useful ones:

If you heat ice, it melts.

If we catch the 10 o?clock train, we will get there by lunch-time.

If we caught the 10 o?clock train, we would get there by lunch time.

If we had caught the 10 o?clock train, we would have got there by lunch-time.

1) Real conditional

A. The first one called “whenever-type” in that “if” here is used in the sense of “whenever”. It can be used to denote the following meanings:

a. Universal truth or general validity

Statements of this type commonly appear in factual discussions and scientific or technical material. The sequence of verb forms is as follows:

If simple present + main simple present

E.g. If you pour oil on water, it floats.

b. present habitual action

To denote present habitual action, it takes the same pattern.

If simple present + main simple present

E.g. If it rains, I go to work by car.

c. past habitual action

To denote past habitual action, the simple past is used in both the conditional and the main clause.

If simple past + main simple past.

E.g. If I made a promise, I kept it.

B. The second falls into three forms: basic form, variant form, and

alternative form.

Basic forms:

a) (if) simple present + (mian) will, etc + infinitive

If it is fine tomorrow, we can have a picnic somewhere.

(if) simple present + (main) imperative

If you wake up before me, give me a call.

Variant forms:

a) (if) should + infinitive + (main) will, would, etc + infinitive

If he should come tomorrow, I would tell him everything.

b)(if)will + infinitive + (main) will, would, etc + infinitive

If you would read more carefully, you would understand what

the author means.

Alternative forms

a) imperative + and-clause

Set your alarm clock, and you won?t oversleep.

b) imperative + or-clause.

Set your alarm clock, or (else) you …ll oversleep.

What we have enumerate above only represent the commonest types of real conditionals, which are actually too variegated to be exhausted in a few patterns. As a matter of fact, there are far more possible sequences of verb forms for real conditionals. So long as they do not make unreal conditionals, almost all sequences of verb forms are possible. Thus, in addition to the above-mentioned types, we can also say, for example:

If he has finished his work, we shall be able to take him with us.

If you?ve been traveling all night, you probably need a rest.

Lecture 17 & 18 Auxiliary verb

Auxiliary verb can be divided into 3 types:

basic auxiliary verb,

mood auxiliary verb,

semi-auxiliary verb.

17.1 the means to express mood meanings

1)to express “Ability” and “possibility”: can, could, be able to

2)to express “ Permission”: can/could, may/mig ht

3)to express “Obligation” or “Necessity”: should, ought to, must

4)to express “Prediction” or “Predictability”

5)to express “ Willingness”, “intention” or “Determination”:

will/would, shall

6)other mood meanings: to express “pity, worry, happiness,

surprise…”

17.2 Epistemic usage or non-epistemic usage of mood auxiliary verb

1)the mood auxiliary verbs serving as epistemic usage

a)

auxiliary mood verb non-epistemic usage epistemic usage

can/could to express “Ability” “Permission” to express “ Possibility”

may/might to express “Permission” to express “Possibility”

will/would to express “Willingness” to express “Predictability”

should/ought to to express “Obligation” to express “Necessity”

must to express “Obligation” to express “Necessity”

b) degree of possibility

Uncertain might That might be George.

↓may ↓

could

can

should

ought to

would

will

Certain must That must be George.

2)syntax characters of mood auxiliary verb with epistemic meaning

a)tense

b)there –be

c)static verb

d)noun phrase of lifeless things

3)mood auxiliary verb with epistemic meaning and the referred time 18.1 semi-auxiliary verbs

1)the types of semi-auxiliary verb: focused on “be”; focused on

“have”; focused on “seem”

can be transformed into “it…that” canno t transformed

be about to be certain to

be able to be (un)likely to

be apt to appear to

be bound to chance to

be due to happen to

be going to seem to

be liable to turn out to…

be obliged to

be supposed to

be sure to

be to

be willing to

had better/best

have to

have got to

come to

fail to

get to

tend to…

2)semi-auxiliary a nd “it…that” structure

Lecture 19 & 20 Infinitive

Teaching Aims

(1) To understand non-finite verbs

(2) To grasp the form of infinitive verbs

(3) To grasp the use of infinitive verb

Teaching Content

(1) Classification of verb

(2) Characteristics of non-finite verb and classification of non-finite verb

(3) Infinitive verb

a. the forms of infinitive verb

b. change of form in tense and aspect and voice

c. the logical subject

d. usage of infinitive verb

e. transformation from infinitive into clause

(4) Notices

1. Grammatical forms

The infinitive has no tense distinctions, nor person or number contrast. But they can be passive and take the simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive forms.

A negative infinitive is formed by adding not or never

immediately before the infinitive sign to.

2. Forms of the infinitive

There are two types of infinitive: to-infinitive and bare infinitive.

The bare infinitive just the infinitive without to, which is identical in form with the base of the verb.

2.1 Infinitive commonly occurs with to, but in some contexts it is

necessary to use the bare infinitive, and in some other

cases the infinitive sign is optional.

Following is summing up of the situations in which the bare infinitive is used.

1) the bare infinitive is generally used to follow the modals

including need and dare.

2) the bare infinitive is used to follow semi-auxiliaries.

3) the bare infinitive is used to combine with such modal idioms as

would rather, would sooner, would (just) as soon, may/ might/(just) as well, cannot but, cannot help but, etc.

4) the bare infinitive is commonly used to follow rather than and

sooner than, especially when rather/ sooner than takes the initial position.

e.g. Rather than cause trouble, he left.

Sooner than marry that man, she would earn her living as a waitress.

But when rather than takes other positions in the sentence, the following infinitive may be with or without to.

e.g. He decided to go fishing rather than stay in the school.

The manager believes it is important to invest in new

machinery rather than to increase wages.

5) the bare infinitive is often combined with a main verb to form

some fixed combinations such as:

make believe let slip let down leave go let fall hear tell

6) the bare infinitive usually appears after “ causative verb +

object”, but when the causative verb occurs in the passive, the bare infinitiv should be turned into a to-infinitive.

e.g. Tom made Marry do the cleaning.

Marry was made to do the cleaning.

7) the bare infinitive usually occurs after “sense verb + object”.

The sense verbs include see, hear, observe, notice, feel, watch, look at, listen to. But when the sense verb occurs in the passive, it should be followed by a to-infinitive.

8) the bare infinitive is used after “ have known + object”, e.g.

I have never known that man smile.

9) the bare infinitive often appears after help or “help +object”, but

to-infinitive is also used.

10) the bare infinitive usually appears after the preposition except/

but when there is a form of the main verb do before the preposition, which is otherwise followed by a to-infinitive.

e.g. I did nothing but wait.

Likewise, in some SVC constructions, if the subject contains a form of the main verb do, the infinitive in the complement may be with or without to.

e.g. The only thing I can do now is (to) go on by mysel

f.

11) the bare infinitive also appears after “ why/ why not”?

12) the bare infinitive can also be used in the following idiomatic

expressions.

Go post a letter for me.

Come have a chat with me.

Try eat a little.

I?ll try help him.

13) the bare infinitive used in parallel construction.

e.g. Tom has get up, wash his face and go to school.

Tom likes to climb mountain more than fish.

■Notice: when infinitive verb is omitted, the small word to should be given out.

e.g. Would you like to have some coffee? Yes, I?d like to.

2.2 Some few notes on the use of the infinitive sign

1) Infinitive sign used alone

To avoid repetition, the infinitive sign can sometimes be used alone, that is to say, the base in the to-infinitive can be committed, sometimes together with its complementation. This kind of omission is quite common in informal style.

You may go if you wish to.

If the base of the infinitive is the verb be or have, it should be retained, even though its

complementation is omitted.

A: Aren?t you the manager?

B: No, I don?t want to be.

In some contexts, both the to-infinitive and its complementation

can be omitted so that no trace remains of the infinitive.

I?d like to do it now, but I haven?t got the time (to).

2) Ellipsis of the infinitive sign

When two to-infinitives are coordinated by and or or, the second

to is usually unless there is a contrastive meaning,

e.g. I intend to call him and discuss this question again.

When there is contrastive meaning, the second to must be

retained.

e.g. To be or not to be, that is the question.

The infinitive sign cannot be omitted if there is no coordinator

between the coordinate infinitives.

e.g. Please go to the seaside to swim, to get suntanned.

Nor can any infinitive sign be omitted if a sequence of infinitives

occur in a parallel

construction.

e.g. The student must learn to read extensively, to analyze what

he reads and to summarize the main points presented.

2.3 infinitive to or preposition to

The word to often present a problem for Chinese students. For instance, in “object to” and “be used to”, is the word to a

preposition or an infinitive sign? To solve this problem, we may try to put a noun after it. If a noun or a noun equivalent is

possible, it proves to be a preposition; otherwise, it is an

infinitive sign. Following is a summary of the collocations in which the item to is a preposition, not an infinitive sign.

1) verb + preposition to

add to, agree to, amount to, attend to and etc.

2) verb + noun/pron. + prep. to

apply…to, accustom …to, confine…to, devote…to, etc.

3) verb + -ed particple + prep. to

be accustomed to, be used to, be devoted to,etc.

4) verb + adverb particle + prep. to

look forward to, face up to, get down to, etc.

5) adjective +prep. to

equal to, loyal to, similar to, etc.

6) noun + prep. to

limit to, aid to, objection to, key to, etc.

7) complex prepositions ending in to.

Owing to, thanks to, preparatory to, previous to, prior to, in addition to, etc.

3. Changes in tenses and aspects and voices

tenses and aspects active voice passive

voice

simple (to) do to be

done

progressive (to) be doing

perfect (to) have done to have

been done

perfect progressive to have been doing to have

been being done

4. Logical subject

1) Found in the sentence (subject or object)

e.g. He likes to climb mountains.

We asked him to do it.

2) Caused by for in the sentence “It is/was + adjective + for +

noun/pron + to infinitive”

3) Caused by of in the sentence “It is/was + adjective + of +

noun/pron + to infinitive”

Adjectives: kind good nice unwise wise clever

silly wrong right foolish stupid careless

considerate rude naughty impolite.

5. Usage

Adjective + infinitive

5.1 Type I

This type of STC pattern is characterized by the fact that the subject of main clause is the logical subject of the infinitive. The adjectives in this pattern are all dynamic adjectives, which can be subdivided into the following categories.

Adjectives showing emotional feelings, e.g.:

He is glad to help others.

Adjectives showing good or bad luck, e.g.:

He was lucky to be able to find a job.

Adjectives showing mental state or persona lattitude, e.g.:

We are ready to make the attempt.

If the subject of the main clause is not the logical subject of the infinitive, the logical should be expressed with an introductory for: I?m quite willing for your brother to come with me.

Adjectives showing character or behavioral trait, eg:

He is foolish to meet her again.

5.2 Type II

In this type of SVC pattern, the subject of the main clause is the logical object of the infinitive. Here, the adjectives are generally stative adjectives.

e.g. That question is difficult to answer.

She is pleasant to talk to.

These sentences can be transformed into an anticipatory It-construction:

It is difficult to answer that question.

But there are constructions of the same type that cannot be so transformed.

e.g. They are attractive to look at.

The river is narrow to sail up.

5.3 Type III

In this type, the subject of the main clause may be the logical subject or logical object of the infinitive.

e.g. These books are easy to sell.

But in most cases, the adjective can be turned into a corresponding adverb in deep structure.

e.g. He is quite to take offence.

He was hesitant to take action.

Noun (phrase) + infinitive

Here, the infinitive is used as post modification in noun phrases.

1) Semantic relations

Semantically, the noun (phrase) and the infinitive that follows may form different relations, for instance, a subject-verb relation, that is, the noun (phrase) is the logical subject of the infinitive.

e.g. Jim was the last guest to arrive.

Sometimes, the noun (phrase) is the logical object of the infinitive,

e.g. He has a large family to suggest

in the case of an intransitive infinitive, an appropriate preposition should be added.

e.g. The boy needs a friend to play with.

Sometimes, the noun phrase is in apposition to the infinitive that follows.

e.g. The boy had an impulse to jump over the fence.

2) infinitive---- active or passive

As post modification, the infinitive may appear in active or passive voice. In some contexts, both active and passive forms are possible.

e.g. The man to consult / to be consulted is Mr. Johnson.

But in other case, an active form seems more natural than the passive.

e.g. I have got a lot of letters to write.

In still other cases, a passive form sounds more appropriate.

e.g. The question to be discussed at the next meeting will be a hard nut to crack.

3) “Noun + infinitive” vs “noun + preposition + -ing”

with some nouns such as attempt, chance, effort, freedom, intention, necessity, opportunity, reason, time, way, etc, the post modifier may be an infinitive or a “preposition + -ing” with no difference in meaning.

e.g. The doctor made a bold attempt to save/ of saving the child?s life.

With some other nouns, it is appropriate to use an infinitive rather than a “preposition + -ing” as post modifier.

e.g. They have the ability to produce nuclear weapons.

These nouns include ability, agreement, ambition, anxiety, curiosity, disposition, mind, obligation, permission, refusal, reluctance, temptation, tendency, wish, etc.

There are still other nouns which do not admit of an infinitive as post modifier; a “preposition + -ing” is normally used.

e.g. there is no hope of winning the game.

Other nouns in the same use include aptitude, delay, difficulty, excuse, experience, interest, genius, habit, idea, motive, objection, passion, plan, possibility, skill success, etc.

Verb + infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive to form a verb object relation, that is, the

Infinitive functions as the object of the verb. These collocations fall into three groups; 1) verb + infinitive, 2) verb + object + infinitive, and 3) verb + (object) + infinitive.

4) verb + infinitive

There are verbs that can be directly followed by an infinitive rather than an –ing form as object.

e.g. He demanded to be told everything.

These verbs include agree, aim, apply, arrange, choose, claim, decide, demand, desire, determine, endeavor, expect, hope, learn, manage, offer, pledge, prepare, pretend, profess, promise, refuse, resolve, seek, swear, threaten, undertake, venture, volunteer, etc.

Some of these verbs such as agree, arrange, promise, resolve, claim, decide, demand, determine, hope, pretend, profess, swear, threaten, etc can also be followed by a corresponding that-clause.

2) Verb + object + infinitive

There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an infinitive unless the verb and the infinitive are intervened by a noun or pronoun. . These verbs include five groups:

a)Verbs of perception or sense verbs such as see ,hear, watch, feel,

ect. e.g.:

Did you see him enter the building?

b)Causative verbs such as have , let ,make, etc, eg:

Don?t forget to have your children come with you.

c)Some phrasal verbs such as arrange foe , ask for, rely on, etc,

eg:

I?ll arrange for you to meet the manager .

d)Verbs showing mental state such as consider, declare, find (=

consider ), prove ,think, believe, discover, feel ( = think ) ,

imagine , judge, suppose, understand, etc, eg:

I believe him to be reliable.

e)V erbs having the force of “ advice” ,”permission” ,

“forbiddance”, etc such as a dvise , allow , forbid , permit,

recommend, require, urge, etc ,eg:

I advised him to give up smoking.

There are a few points to note about the use of these verbs :First , the i nfinitive after verbs under “group d” is invariably “to be” ,eg:

We know him to be reliable.

He declared himself to be innocent.

Secondly, after such verbs as consider, declare, find prove, think, the infinitive “to be” can be committed, eg:

He proved himself (to be ) innocent.

If the infinitive “to be” is in the perfective form , then it cannot be committed,:

We considered him to have been foolish.

Thirdly? in view of the fact that the noun or pronoun in this context may be viewed as the object of the finite verb that goes before or as the logical subject of the infinitive that follows , an alternative construction with a that –clause is available for interpretation ,eg:

They believed him to be insane.

Some of the verbs of “group e? such as advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend can also be followed directly by an -ing form as object. Compare:

She advised us to give up smoking.

And some may also be followed by a that-clause:

They required us to get there before nine.

1)Verb + (object ) + infinitive

With some verbs such as ask, can?t bear, hate, intend, like, prefer, want, etc, the object is optional, that is these verbs can occur either in the “verb + infinitive”construction in the “verb +object + infinitive” pattern, eg:

Do you intend to make a long stay there?

Most of these verbs can also can be followed by that-clause, eg:

She asked to do more work.

Some may also be directly followed by an -ing form, eg:

I have troubling you about trifles.

6. The passive voice of infinitive verb phrase

1) form: to be done

2) usage: when the logical subject of infinitive is the do of infinitive

verb, we should use passive voice.

e.g. He ordered the work to be started at once.

How would you like to have been being scolded (挨骂)all day.

3) in the following cases, we should not use passive voice.

Lecture 21 -ing Participle

Teaching Aims

(1) To know the g rammatical function of –ing participle

(2) To grasp the use of –ing participle

(3) To the differences between infinitive and –ing participle as noun Teaching Content

(1) The classification of –ing participle (gerund and present participle traditionally)

(2) The use of gerund

(3) The use of present participle

The “–ing participle” is used to include both the traditional “present participle” and the “gerund”.

1. Collocation of –ing participle with verbs

This section is concerned with two collocations: “verb +--ing form” and “verb +object +preposition +--ing form”.

1.1 verb+ --ing form

There are verbs that can only be followed by an –ing form rather than an infinitive as object. These verbs include admit, acknowledge, anticipate, advocate, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, can’t resist, can’t stand, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny, det est, dislike, don’t mind, ensure, enjoy, escape, excuse, evade, facilitate, fancy, favor, finish, give up, imagine, include, keep (on), mind, miss, pardon, postpone, practice, put off, resent, report, risk, stop, suggest, and etc.

Some of the verbs listed above such as admit, acknowledge, anticipate, advocate, appreciate,can also take a corresponding that –clause as object.

1.2 verb + object + preposition + --ing form

There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an –ing form unless it is interrupted by an object and a preposition. These verbs include trick, mislead, shame, surprise, trap, stop, prevent, restrain, hinder, save, etc, and the prepositions commonly used in this collocation are into and from.

e.g. A sailor saved him from drowning.

In some of these collocations such as “prevent/stop somebody from doing something”, the preposition from can be omitted, except that the finite verb occurs in the passive.

We must prevent the trouble spreading.

Similar collocations such as “thank sb.for doing sth., congratulate sb.

on doing sth. and so on.

2. Verbs followed either by infinitive or by--ing participle

There are verbs that be followed either by an -ing form or by an infinitive .With some of these verbs, the choice between the two makes no difference in meaning ;with others, however, different choices result in different interpretations.

Either infinitive or -ing participle without change of meaning

Verbs that can take either an infinitive or an-ing form as object include attempt, begin, can?t bear, continue, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, start, etc. Following these verbs, an infinitive or an -ing participle can alternate without change in basic meaning. There are cases, however, where the transforms are not in free variation.

a) After process verbs such as begin, cease, continue, start and emotive verbs such as can’t bear, deserve, dread, hate intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require,the infinitive is commonly used, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used to refer to a specific act while the-ing participle is used is to refer to a general act, eg:

I can?t bear living alone.

I can?t bear to see the child so badly treated.

Phil prefers doing it that way.

He prefers to go by train this evening.

b) After need, want, require, desire, an active –ing form can be used to denote a passive meaning which can also be expressed by a passive infinitive.

e.g. This letter needs to be signed by the manager.

This letter needs signing by the manager.

c) After begin and start, either infinitive or –ing form is possible, but when the infinitive is stative verb, it normally goes with begin.

e.g. We begin to see what he means.

She began to believe his story.

When begin/start is in the progressive, it is also an infiitive, not an –ing form that is normally used.

e.g. It?s beginning to rain.

I?m starting to work on my essay next week.

2.2 Either infinitive or –ing form with different meanings

The verbs that admit of either of an infinitive or an-ing form with different mernings falls into five sub-classes:

a) After remember and forget, infinitive refers to a second act that follows the first , and the-ing participle to a previous venet ,eg: Can?t you remember telling me the story last night?

=You told me the sto ry last night .Can?t you remember it?

You must tell him all that .

=You must tell him all that. Don?t foget it.

The use of regret also presents such a contrast:

I regret telling you that John stole it.

=I regret that I told you.

I regret to tell you that John stole it.

=I?m sorry to tell you.

But “I regret telling you…” can also be interpreted as:

I regret that I am telling you …

b) After stop, leave off, go on,go on with, go on to, the –ing participle functions as object, and while the infinitive as adverbial of purpose.

They stopped watching TV at 8:00.

They stopped to watch TV at 8:00.

c) After try, mean, can’t help,the choice between an infinitive and an-ing form depends on the meaning of the preceding verb itself.

I didn?t mean to spend too much money on that project.

Your plan would mean spending a lot of money.

d) After agree, decide, there is a choice between the infinitive and “preposition + -ing”

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