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MSC Circl.1307

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION 4 ALBERT EMBANKMENT LONDON SE1 7SR Telephone: 020 7735 7611 Fax: 020 7587 3210
E
IMO MSC.1/Circ.1307 9 June 2009
Ref. T2-OSS/1.4
GUIDANCE ON THE SURVEY AND CERTIFICATION OF COMPLIANCE OF SHIPS WITH THE REQUIREMENT TO TRANSMIT LRIT INFORMATION
1 The Maritime Safety Committee (the Committee), at its eighty-sixth session (27 May to 5 June 2009), considered a number of issues which have arisen in relation to the survey and certification of ships following the issue of MSC.1/Circ.1296 on Guidance on the survey and certification of compliance of ships with the requirement to transmit LRIT information, and approved the Guidance on the survey and certification of compliance of ships with the requirement to transmit LRIT information (the Guidance) as set out in the annex. 2 The Guidance outlines a number of alternative options for documenting compliance of the shipborne equipment with the requirements of SOLAS regulations V/19-1.6 and V/19-1.7 and the related provisions of the Revised performance standards and functional requirements for the long-range identification and tracking of ships (Revised performance standards) adopted by resolution MSC.263(84) and sets out the approach to be taken when surveying and certifying the compliance of ships which are required to transmit LRIT information with the aforesaid obligation. The Guidance should be read together with SOLAS regulation V/19-1 and the Revised performance standards. 3 The Committee also agreed to keep the Guidance under review and amend it as and when the circumstances so warrant. 4 The Committee also decided that Conformance test reports issued prior to 15 December 2008 pursuant to the provisions of MSC.1/Circ.1257 and Conformance test reports issued prior to 1 July 2009 pursuant to the provisions of MSC.1/Circ.1296 should be accepted, subject to the conditions specified in paragraphs 7.2 and 7.3 of the annex to this circular in relation to the validity of Conformance test reports, as providing evidence of compliance equal to those specified in the annex to this circular until they are replaced. The Committee further agreed that such Conformance test reports should be replaced by Conformance test reports issued pursuant to the provisions of this circular when they are re-issued or updated on or after 1 July 2009. 5 SOLAS Contracting Governments are invited to bring the present circular and its annex to the attention of recognized organizations which they have authorized to act on their behalf and to provide to such recognized organizations any necessary further guidance and instruction so as to ensure that the objectives of this circular are achieved. 6 SOLAS Contracting Governments are also invited to bring the present circular and the salient parts of its annex to the attention of companies operating ships entitled to fly their flag which are required to transmit LRIT information and to provide to such companies any necessary further guidance and instruction so as to ensure that the objectives of this circular are achieved.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307
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7 SOLAS Contracting Governments should communicate to the Organization as soon as possible the names and contact details of the Application Service Providers they have either recognized within the framework of the Revised performance standards or they have authorized to conduct conformance testing as set out in the attached Guidance, together with any conditions attached to such recognitions or authorizations and update the information as and when changes occur. 8 SOLAS Contracting Governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations with consultative status are also invited to bring to the attention of the Committee, at the earliest opportunity, the results of the experience gained from the use of the Guidance for consideration of action to be taken. 9 This circular revokes MSC.1/Circ.1296 and any reference to MSC.1/Circ.1296 should be read as reference to the present circular.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307
ANNEX GUIDANCE ON THE SURVEY AND CERTIFICATION OF COMPLIANCE OF SHIPS WITH THE REQUIREMENT TO TRANSMIT LRIT INFORMATION
1
Introduction
1.1 This note provides guidance to Contracting Governments in relation to the survey and certification of the compliance of ships, high-speed craft and mobile offshore drilling units entitled to fly their flag with the obligation to transmit LRIT information. 1.2 In addition, this note provides salient information which would enable companies operating ships, owners and operators of high-speed craft and owners and operators of mobile offshore drilling units which are required to comply with the obligation to transmit LRIT information to ensure the survey and certification of their compliance in a timely manner. 1.3 In relation to mobile offshore drilling units, the provisions of this note apply subject to the modifications set out in section 11. 2 Related documents
2.1 The provisions relating to the survey and certification of compliance of ships with the obligation to transmit LRIT information are set out in or governed by: .1 .2 Regulation V/19-1 on long-range identification and tracking of ships; Revised performance standards and functional requirements for the long-range identification and tracking of ships adopted by resolution MSC.263(84) (the Revised performance standards); Resolution A.694(17) on Recommendations on general requirements for shipborne radio equipment forming part of the global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS) and for electronic navigational aids; Resolution A.813(19) on General requirements for electromagnetic compatibility of all electrical and electronic ship’s equipment; Resolution MSC.216(82) on Adoption of amendments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended, which sets out in annex 1 amendments (amendments 50 to 52) inserting in the Record of Equipment for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (Form P), the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E) and the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C) an entry to indicate compliance with Long-range identification and tracking systems; Resolution MSC.221(82) on Adoption of amendments to the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (1994 HSC Code) which sets out in the annex an amendment (amendment 9) inserting in the Record of Equipment for High-Speed Craft Safety Certificate an entry to indicate compliance with Long-range identification and tracking systems;
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 2 .7 Resolution MSC.222(82) on Adoption of amendments to the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft, 2000, which sets out in the annex an amendment (amendment 148) inserting in the Record of Equipment for High-Speed Craft Safety Certificate an entry to indicate compliance with Long-range identification and tracking systems; and Resolution MSC.227(82) on Adoption of amendments to the Protocol of 1988 relating to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, which sets out in the annex amendments (amendments 1 to 3) inserting in the Record of Equipment for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (Form P), the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E) and the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C) an entry to indicate compliance with Long-range identification and tracking systems.
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3 3.1
Definitions Unless indicated otherwise for the purposes of this note: .1 Authorized testing ASP means an Application Service Provider, other than a Recognized ASP, which has been authorized by the Administration to conduct conformance tests in accordance with this note and for which related information has been communicated to the Organization in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 6.2; Certificate means the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate and Cargo Ship Safety Certificate issued under the provisions of the Convention or the Protocol and High-Speed Craft Safety Certificate issued under the provisions of the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft or the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft, 2000; Chapter means a chapter of the Convention; Contracting Government means a Contracting Government to the Convention; Convention means the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended; Protocol means the Protocol of 1988 relating to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended; Radio related certificate means the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate and Cargo Ship Safety Certificate issued under the provisions of the Convention or the Protocol and High-Speed Craft Safety Certificate issued under the provisions of the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft or the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft, 2000; Record of Equipment means the Record of Equipment for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (Form P), the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E) and the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C) issued under the provisions of the Convention or the
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 3 Protocol and the Record of Equipment for High-Speed Craft Safety Certificate issued under the provisions of the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft or the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft, 2000; .9 Recognized ASP means an Application Service Provider which has been recognized by the Contracting Government concerned pursuant to the provisions of paragraphs 5.1.1 and 5.1.2 of the Revised performance standards and for which related information has been communicated to the Organization in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5.2 of the Revised performance standards; Regulation means a regulation of the Convention (or of the Convention as modified by the Protocol, as in force between Contracting Governments which are also parties to the Protocol); and Ship refers to ships, high-speed craft and mobile offshore drilling units which are required to comply with the provisions of regulation V/19-1.
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3.2 Terms used in this note not otherwise defined have the meaning assigned to them in chapters I, IV and V or in the Revised performance standards. 4 Shipborne equipment to be of a type approved by the Administration
4.1 Regulation V/19-1.6 specifies that the shipboard equipment to be used to transmit LRIT information (shipborne equipment) shall be of a type approved by the Administration. 4.2 Compliance of the shipborne equipment with the requirements of regulations V/19-1.6 and V/19-1.7 and of section 4 of the Revised performance standards should be demonstrated by the equipment being: .1 of a type approved by the Administration in accordance with the provisions of regulation V/19-1; or of a type approved by the Administration in accordance with the provisions of regulation IV/14 and satisfactorily completing a conformance test in accordance with the procedures and provisions set out in appendix 1; or certified by the Administration as meeting the requirements of IEC 60945 (2002-08) and IEC 60945 Corr.1 (2008-04) on Maritime navigation and radiocommunication equipment and systems – General requirements – Methods of testing and required test results and satisfactorily completing a conformance test in accordance with the procedures and provisions set out in appendix 1; or certified by the Administration as meeting the requirements of the provisions of regulation XI-2/6; and the provisions of either resolution MSC.136(76) on Performance standards for a ship security alert system or of resolution MSC.147(77) on Adoption of the Revised performance standards for a ship security alert system; and the provisions of section 4 of the Revised performance standards; and satisfactorily completing a conformance test in accordance with the procedures and provisions set out in appendix 1.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 4 5 Conformance test
5.1 The conformance test should be conducted either by a recognized ASP or by an authorized testing ASP. 5.2 Subject to the provisions of paragraphs 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, the conformance test should be conducted using a communication system which provides coverage in all sea areas for which the ship is certified to operate. 5.2.1 Subject to the provisions of paragraphs 5.2 and 5.2.2, the results of the conformance test are not in any way prejudiced by the location or whereabouts of the ship when the conformance test is conducted. 5.2.2 Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 5.2, for ships constructed before 31 December 2008 and certified to operate in sea areas A1, A2, A3 and A4, the conformance test for sea area A4 may be conducted separately taking into account the provisions of regulation V/19-1.4.1.3. 5.3 For ships constructed on or after 31 December 2008, the conformance test should be: .1 conducted after the completion of the initial survey of the radio installation, provided such survey has indicated that, as far as the radio installation is concerned, the ship meets the related requirements for the issue of a radio related certificate; and satisfactorily completed prior to the issue of a certificate as a result of satisfactory completion of the related initial survey.
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5.4
For ships constructed before 31 December 2008, the conformance test should be: .1 conducted prior to the date on which a ship would need to demonstrate compliance with the requirements of regulation V/19-1; and satisfactorily completed prior to the amendment of the record of equipment to document compliance with the requirements relating to Long-range identification and tracking system or prior to the issue of a certificate, in case the ship in question is undergoing a related renewal survey.
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5.5 Administrations should establish, for ships constructed before 31 December 2008, dates, ahead of the dates stipulated in regulation V/19-1.4.1 for the phased in implementation of the requirement to transmit LRIT information, by which the conformance testing should be carried out with a view to ensuring the timely compliance of the ships entitled to fly their flag with the requirements of regulation V/19-1. 5.6 Notwithstanding the provisions of regulation V/19-1.4.1, ships the construction of which has commenced before 31 December 2008 but has been, or is to be, completed on or after 31 December 2008 should comply with the obligation to transmit LRIT information before they are put into service. For such ships the conformance test should be conducted and satisfactorily completed as specified in paragraph 5.3.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 5 6 Communication of information in relation to Application Service Providers
6.1 Unless the Administration concerned informs the Organization otherwise, recognized ASPs should be automatically considered as being authorized by the Administration concerned to conduct conformance tests in accordance with the provisions of this note. 6.2 Administrations should provide to the Organization a list with the names and contact details of the authorized testing ASPs1 together with any associated conditions of authorization and thereafter should, without undue delay, update the Organization as changes occur. 6.3 The Organization should communicate the information it receives pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 5.2 of the Revised performance standards and the information it receives pursuant to paragraphs 6.1 and 6.2 to all Contracting Governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations with consultative status. 7 Conformance test report
7.1 A Conformance test report should be issued, on satisfactory completion of a conformance test, by the Administration or the ASP who conducted the test acting on behalf of the Administration and should be in accordance with the model set out in appendix 2. 7.2 The Conformance test report should be considered as no longer remaining valid if: .1 .2 there is a change in the shipborne equipment used to transmit LRIT information; the ship is transferred to the flag of another Contracting Government, subject to the provisions of paragraph 10.1; the ASP which has issued the Conformance test report has notified the Administration or the Recognized Organization which, acting on behalf of the Administration, has issued the certificate is no longer in a position to attest the validity of the report; and the Administration has withdrawn the recognition or authorization of the ASP which conducted the conformance test. However, in such cases the Administration concerned may decide that the Conformance test report, issued either prior to the date of withdrawal of such recognition or authorization or prior to a date determined by the Administration, remain valid subject to these being considered as being the responsibility of Administration.
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7.3 Notwithstanding the provisions of regulations I/11 and V/16, the Conformance test report should also be considered as no longer remaining valid when the shipborne equipment used to transmit LRIT information becomes unserviceable. 7.4 Administrations choosing to use the services of authorized testing ASPs should ensure that the recognized ASP(s) are able to integrate into the LRIT system the ships to which an authorized testing ASP has issued Conformance test reports.
1
A model letter for communicating the relevant information to the Organization is provided in MSC.1/Circ.1298 on Guidance on the implementation of the LRIT system.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 6
8
Initial certification of compliance on or after 31 December 2008
8.1 The conformance test has been designed also to demonstrate compliance of the shipborne equipment with the functional requirements of V/19-1.5 and section 4 of the Revised performance standards. 8.2 For ships constructed on or after 31 December 2008, prior to the issue of a certificate, the shipborne equipment should satisfactorily complete a conformance test in accordance with the procedures and provisions set out in appendix 1 within the periods specified in paragraph 5.3. 8.3 Subject to the provisions of paragraph 5.6, for ships constructed before 31 December 2008, prior to the amendment of the record of equipment associated with a valid certificate or the renewal of a certificate in case it is also due, the shipborne equipment should satisfactorily complete a conformance test in accordance with the procedures and provisions set out in appendix 1 within the period specified in paragraph 5.4 and the survey of the radio installation has indicated that, as far as the radio installation is concerned, the ship meets the related requirements for the renewal or endorsement of the radio related certificate. 8.4 Notwithstanding paragraphs 8.2 and 8.3, shipborne equipment which has already satisfactorily completed a conformance test for the purposes of demonstrating compliance with the requirement to be of a type approved by the Administration (refer to paragraphs 4.2.2 to 4.2.4) are not required to undergo any further conformance test (i.e. the conformance test is required to be carried out only once), provided such tests have been conducted within the periods specified in paragraphs 5.3 or 5.4, as the case may be, taking into account the provisions of paragraph 5.6. 8.5 Notwithstanding paragraphs 8.2 and 8.3, shipborne equipment of a type approved by the Administration (refer to paragraph 4.2.1) should undergo conformance test within the periods specified in paragraphs 5.3 or 5.4, as the case may be, taking into account the provisions of paragraph 5.6 (i.e. shipborne equipment of a type approved by the Administration are required to undergo conformance testing). 8.6 In relation to cargo ships, the provision of the Convention and of the Protocol stipulated as a results of the amendments adopted by resolutions MSC.216(82) and MSC.227(82) that compliance with the obligation to transmit LRIT information should be attested by completing the entry provided in section 3 of the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E) or section 5 of the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C) and thus the relevant certificates are the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate and Cargo Ship Safety Certificate. 8.6.1 As a result, any amendment of the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate or of the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate (Form R) or any amendment of the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate or of the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C), other than the one specified in paragraph 8.6 in relation to Long-range identification and tracking systems, does not attest compliance of the ship concerned with the obligation to transmit LRIT information.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 7 9 Renewal and annual survey after the initial certification of compliance
9.1 During any renewal or annual survey following the initial certification of compliance of a ship with the requirements of regulation V/19-1, the related certificate should be issued or endorsed, as the case may be, provided the Conformance test report is still valid taking into account the provisions of paragraphs 7.2 and 7.3. 10 Transfer of flag
10.1 When a ship is transferred to the flag of another Contracting Government, the Conformance test report should be considered as remaining valid if the ASP which conducted the conformance test is also either a recognized ASP or an authorized testing ASP by the Contracting Government to whose flag the ship is transferred. 10.1.1 In such cases the ASP concerned should reissue the Conformance test report on behalf of the Administration concerned henceforth indicating the new particulars of the ship but without altering the date of completion of the conformance test. 10.2 In cases where the Conformance test report is deemed to be no longer valid, due to the transfer of the flag to another Contracting Government, a new conformance test should be conducted, prior to the issue of a certificate, by either a recognized ASP or an authorized testing ASP acting on behalf of the Administration concerned. 11 Specific provisions in relation to mobile offshore drilling units
11.1 Mobile offshore drilling units may be required by the Contracting Government whose flag they may be entitled to fly to comply with the provisions of the: .1 national codes or requirements for the construction and equipment of mobile offshore drilling units, in case they were constructed prior 31 December 1981; or Code for the construction and equipment of mobile offshore drilling units adopted by resolution A.414(XI) (the 1979 MODU Code); or Code for the construction and equipment of mobile offshore drilling units, 1989 adopted by resolution A.649(16) (the 1989 MODU Code) in case their keel was laid or was at a similar state of construction on or after 1 May 1991.
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11.2 The provisions of this note should apply mutatis mutandis to mobile offshore drilling units subject to any reference to certificate and radio related certificate in this note being read as referring: .1 for mobile offshore drilling units constructed on or after 31 December 2008, to the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate, 1989 issued pursuant to the provisions of the 1989 MODU Code; and for mobile offshore drilling units constructed before 31 December 2008, to either the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of the 1979 MODU Code or the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate, 1989, issued pursuant to the provisions of the 1989 MODU Code or a certificate or document issued under a national code or requirements in case of units constructed prior to 31 December 1981, as the case may be.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 8
11.3 As the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate and the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate, 1989 are not accompanied by a record of equipment, mobile offshore drilling units should be considered as meeting the requirements when: .1 .2 the provisions of sections 4, 5 and 8 are met; there is on board a valid certificate or document issued under a national code or requirements in case of units constructed prior to 31 December 1981, or a valid Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate or a valid Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit Safety Certificate, 1989; and there is on board a valid Conformance test report.
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Cargo ships of gross tonnage of 300 and above but of less than 500
12.1 Cargo ships whose gross tonnage is 300 and above but of less than 500 are not required to hold a valid Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate and thus there is no Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E) which could be endorsed so as to attest their compliance with the obligation to transmit LRIT information. 12.2 The compliance of the aforesaid cargo ships with the obligation to transmit LRIT information should be documented: .1 in case they are issued with a Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, by completing the relevant entry in section 5 of the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate (Form C) and having on board a valid Conformance test report; or in case they are not issued with a Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, by having on board a valid Conformance test report.
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12.3 Neither the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate nor the Record of Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate (Form R) should be amended in any way to document their compliance with the obligation to transmit LRIT information as any such amendment does not attest compliance of the ship concerned with the obligation to transmit LRIT information. 13 Units and ships addressed by MSC.1/Circ.1295
13.1 The provisions of this note should apply mutatis mutandis to floating production, storage and offloading units (FPSOs) and floating storage units (FSUs) propelled by mechanical means; offshore supply vessels; special purposes ships and A.494(XII)-ships (collectively referred to henceforth as “1295 units and ships”) referred to in MSC.1/Circ.1295 on Guidance in relation to certain types of ships which are required to transmit LRIT information, on exemptions and equivalents and certain operational matters (the Guidance). 13.2 In the cases where the Guidance states that the 1295 units and ships transmit LRIT information in accordance with the provisions of regulation V/19-1 as from 31 December 2009, the conformance test should be satisfactorily completed and a Conformance test report should be issued no later than 31 December 2009.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 9 14 First survey of the radio installation
14.1 Regulations V/19-1.4.1.2 and V/19-1.4.1.3 refers to the first survey of the radio installation after 31 December 2008 and after 1 July 2009, respectively. 14.2 Unless the Administration concerned has, taking into account the provisions of MSC.1/Circ.1290 on Unified interpretation of the term “first survey” referred to in SOLAS regulations, specifies otherwise, the first survey of the radio installation is for ships entitled to fly the flag of: .1 Contracting Governments, is the first periodical survey of the radio installation in accordance with the provisions of regulation I/9 of the Convention; and Contracting Governments which are also State Parties to the Protocol, is the first renewal survey or the first periodical survey of the radio installation, which ever of the two becomes due first, in accordance with the provision of regulation I/9 of the Convention as modified by the Protocol (i.e. in accordance with regulations I/9(a)(ii) and I/9(a)(iii) respectively).
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14.3 For the purposes of implementation of the provisions of regulations V/19-1.4.1.2 and V/19-1.4.1.3, the date of the “first survey” specified under paragraph 14.2 is not altered as a result of either surveys conducted in relation to the transfer of the flag of the ships or as a consequence of any scheduled or unscheduled inspections or surveys or any additional or occasional surveys required by the Administration. 15 Difficulties in conducting conformance testing
15.1 Those who have engaged in conformance testing have advised that they have encountered difficulties when attempting to conduct conformance testing in certain parts of the world or in certain situations. 15.2 Administrations are advised that in such circumstances the inability to complete the conformance testing should not be considered as making the ship unseaworthy or as a reason for delaying the ship in port until the conformance testing is satisfactorily completed, provided suitable arrangements are made, to the satisfaction of the Administration concerned as soon as is practically possible. 15.3 Administrations are urged to report to the Organization the areas where, and/or the circumstances under which, conformance testing cannot be conducted as these have an impact on the functioning of the LRIT system.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 10
Appendix 1 Conformance Test
1
Shipborne equipment requirements testing matrix
1.1 The table set out below has been derived from an analysis of the salient provisions of regulation V/19-1, the Revised Performance standards and the Technical specifications for communications within the LRIT system and specifies for each regulatory requirement the conformance test to be conducted. Table 1 Shipborne equipment regulatory requirements testing matrix
Column heading Ref. Regulatory text Explanation Regulatory reference The text of the related provision with minor paraphrasing and emphasis (showing in italics) Conformance test number Explanation Paragraph of the related provisions of regulation V/19-1 Paragraph of the related provision of the Revised Performance standards Paragraph of the related provision of the Technical specifications for communications within the LRIT system (refer to MSC.1/Circ.1259 on Revised interim technical specifications for the LRIT system) Shipborne equipment lifecycle, i.e. requirements not explicitly defined in the regulatory text but critical to the successful operation of the LRIT system Regulatory text CTN
CTN
Symbols R PS TS
EL
Ref.
R:4.1.1 to R:4.1.3 PS:4.3
Ships shall be fitted with a system to automatically transmit the information specified in regulation V/19-1.5 as follows: … ships constructed before 31 December 2008 and certified for operations in sea areas A1 to A4 The equipment should transmit the LRIT information using a communication system which provides coverage where the ship operates Ships shall automatically transmit the following long-range identification and tracking information The identity of the ship The equipment identifier … should transmit the shipborne equipment
1
1
R:5 R:5.1 PS:4.2 (Table 1)
2 3 3
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 11
Ref. Regulatory text CTN
R:5.2 PS:4.2 (Table 1)
The position of the ship (latitude and longitude) Position – the equipment should be capable of transmitting the GNSS position (latitude and longitude), based upon WGS84 datum, without human interaction on board the ship The date and time of the position provided Date and time – the equipment should be capable of transmitting the date and time associated with the GNSS position with each transmission of LRIT information, and the time should be in UTC The parameters provided by the equipment include: the latitude; longitude; Time Stamp when the position was generated … The parameters provided by the equipment include: the latitude; longitude; Time Stamp when the position was generated … Systems and equipment used to meet the requirements of regulation V/19-1 shall conform to the performance standards and functional requirements not inferior to those adopted by the Organization. Any shipboard equipment should be of a type approved by the Administration Systems and equipments used to meet the requirements of this regulation shall be capable of being switched off on board or be capable of ceasing the distribution In addition to the general requirements contained in resolution A.694(17) on Recommendations on general requirements for shipborne radio equipment for part of the global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS) Be tested for electromagnetic compatibility taking into account the recommendations developed by the Organization (refer to Assembly resolution A.813(19) on General requirements for electromagnetic compatibility of all electrical and electronic ship’s equipment) Pre-scheduled position reports – the equipment should be capable of being remotely configured to transmit LRIT information at intervals ranging from a minimum of 15 min to periods of 6 h to the LRIT Data Centre, irrespective of where the ship is located and without human interaction on board the ship Be capable of being configured remotely to transmit LRIT information at variable intervals The “Request Type” parameter indicates whether the request is for either a one-time poll, … polls at a specified rate … Be capable of automatically and without human intervention on board the ship transmit the ship’s LRIT information at 6-hour intervals to an LRIT Data Centre
4a 4b
R:5.3 PS:4.2(Table 1)
5a 5b
TS:2.2.2.6 TS: Table 2 R:6
5c 5c 6
R:7
7
PS:4.1
8
PS:4.1.5
8
PS:4.2 (Table 1)
9a
PS:4.1.2 TS:2.2.3.12 PS:4.1.1
9b 9b 9c
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 12
Ref. Regulatory text CTN
PS:4.4.1
When a ship is undergoing repairs in dry-dock or in port or is laid up for a long period, the master or the Administration may reduce the frequency of the transmission of LRIT information to one report every 24-hour period … LRIT information should be available to an LRIT Data User within 15 min of the time it is transmitted by the ship. In lieu for the purposes of testing to an ASP Be capable of transmitting LRIT information following receipt of polling commands … On-demand position reports – the equipment should be capable of responding to a request to transmit LRIT information on demand without human interaction on board the ship, irrespective of where the ship is located On-demand LRIT information reports should be provided to an LRIT Data User within 30 min of the time the LRIT Data User requested the information. In lieu for the purposes of testing to an ASP Interface directly to the shipborne global navigation satellite system equipment, or have internal positioning capability Be supplied with energy from the main and emergency source of electrical power The equipment should be set to automatically transmit the ship’s LRIT information at 6-hour intervals to the LRIT Data Centre identified by the Administration … An ASP function should, inter alia, provide a communication protocol interface between the Communication Service Providers and the LRIT Data Centre … An ASP function should, inter alia, ensure that LRIT information is collected, stored and routed in a reliable and secure manner …
9d
PS:13.1
9e
PS:4.1.3 PS:4.2 (Table 1)
10 10
PS:13.2
10
PS:4.1.4 PS:4.1.5 PS:4.4
11 12 13
PS:5.3.1
13
PS:5.3.1
13
2
Shipborne equipment test requirements, procedures and acceptance criteria matrix
2.1 The table set out below specifies the shipborne equipment test requirements, the related procedures and the corresponding acceptance criteria for each conformance test and provides a brief citation of the related regulatory provisions.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 13 Table 2 Shipborne equipment test requirements, procedures and acceptance criteria
Test requirement Procedure
CTN
Acceptance criteria
EL1
The equipment is activated into the ASP CSP acknowledgement received system ASP issuance of an activation command (Note: this function is critical during the transfer of flag process) Establish the sea areas the ship is certified to operate from the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, Passenger Ship Safety Certificate or equivalent Administrative Confirmed by shipowner declaration on testing registration form prior to testing including certificate type and reference number
1
2
The equipment automatically transmits Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 an LRIT information Evaluative The equipment identity is present in the Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 received LRIT information Evaluative The latitude and longitude is present in the Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 received LRIT information Evaluative The equipment GNSS position information Assumed compliant in accordance with standard IMO guidelines and regulations is based upon the WGS84 datum Evaluative The date and time is present in the received Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 LRIT information Evaluative The equipment date and time information Confirmed by the ASP recognized by the Administration or approved to conduct is in UTC conformance testing based upon the Evaluative confirmed inclusion of MEM code 11 (in the case of Inmarsat-C) and in the case of alternate hardware the compliance of the received message structure with the equipment manufacturers published standard for a message containing the generated Date and Time stamp
3
4a
4b
5a
5b
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 14
Test requirement Procedure
CTN
Acceptance criteria
5c
The equipment transmits a Time Stamp relative to when the position was generated (not the CSP receipt time) Evaluative
Confirmed by the ASP recognized by the Administration or approved to conduct conformance testing based upon the confirmed inclusion of MEM code 11 (in the case of Inmarsat-C) and in the case of alternate hardware the compliance of the received message structure with the equipment manufacturers published standard for a message containing the generated Date and Time stamp
6
The equipment is of a type approved by the Forms the subject of this test specification which will be if the results are satisfactory Administration and a Statement of conformity is issued by Administrative the ASP conducting the test (and the subsequent issuance of a Certificate of compliance by the Administration) The equipment is switched off on board or CSP acknowledgement received and ceases the distribution of LRIT information nil LRIT information are transmitted within 90 min ASP outbound Program-Stop command The equipment is compliant provisions of resolution A.694(17) with Confirmed by manufacturer or validation of technical specification
7
8
The equipment has been tested for electromagnetic compatibility (refer to resolution A.813(19)) Administrative 9a The equipment is re-configured to automatically transmit LRIT information at 15-min intervals ASP issuance of Start-15 min reporting command The equipment is re-configured to automatically transmit LRIT information at 60-min intervals demonstrating that a change in transmitting interval has been successfully achieved ASP issuance of Start-60 min reporting command Confirmed subsequent to receipt of 48 consecutive 15-min automatic transmissions of LRIT information. Refer to paragraph 3.2 for information on acceptable tolerances. Confirmed subsequent to receipt of 12 consecutive 60-min automatic transmissions of LRIT information. Refer to paragraph 3.2 for information on acceptable tolerances.
9b
9c
The equipment automatically transmits a Confirmed by ASP or manufacturer or validation of the technical specification LRIT information at 6-h intervals Administrative The equipment is re-configured to Confirmed by ASP or manufacturer or automatically transmit LRIT information validation of technical specification at 24 h intervals Administrative
9d
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 15
Test requirement Procedure
CTN
Acceptance criteria
9e
LRIT information is available within 15 min Validated in conjunction with CTN 9a and 9b of the time it is transmitted by the ship Comparison of the UTC time stamp when the LRIT information was generated against the UTC time stamp when the information was received by the ASP The equipment transmits LRIT information Confirmed subsequent to receipt of 1 polled (subsequent to the ASP issuing a poll transmission of LRIT information command) and the LRIT information is within 30 min available within 30 min of the time the ASP has requested the information ASP issuance of a Send-Request for Position command The equipment interfaces directly to the shipborne global navigation satellite system equipment, or has internal positioning capability Administrative Confirmed by ASP or manufacturer or by validation of technical specification if internal GPS, or if external GPS confirmed by shipowner declaration on testing registration form prior to testing
10
11
12
The equipment is supplied with energy Confirmed by shipowner declaration on from the main and emergency source of testing registration form prior to testing electrical power (this provision does not apply to Inmarsat-C) Administrative The equipment automatically transmits LRIT information via the CSP to the ASP in a reliable and secure manner Administrative Confirmed by the ASP recognized by the Administration or approved to conduct conformance testing based upon confirmation that all communication links from the terminal – satellite – CSP –ASP are direct and secure with no third party ASP involvement
13
EL2
The equipment is de-activated and released CSP acknowledgement or CSP declaration received from the LRIT system ASP issuance of deactivation command or Administrative (Note: this function is critical during the transfer of flag process)
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 16 3 Shipborne equipment performance acceptance criteria and tolerances
3.1 When considering the performance of the LRIT system and the implications of the performance shipborne equipment the following issues need to be taken into account: .1 The overall LRIT system utilizes a sophisticated array of hardware components, software systems and satellite/terrestrial communications networks, which include without limitation: .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .2 Shipborne equipment; Communications satellites; Land Earth Stations; Terrestrial communication networks; CSP routing/switching systems; and ASP systems;
In common with all real world systems the overall LRIT system may suffer from data losses and data latency, i.e. non-delivery/late-delivery of messages; Data losses in the system as a whole are the result of a complex interaction of each of its components. The cause of losses can be as technical as a packet collision in the space segment or as practical as an equipment blockage caused by a ship funnel or crane, in port, etc.; In order to specify the conditions of the conformance testing scheme it should be assumed that the average loss rate of messages sent to and from the existing potential equipment is 4% in each direction. Thus, the loss on a command and response pair such as Data Network Identifier (DNID) download and its acknowledgement is 8%, and the loss on an automatic LRIT information transmission is 4%; Data latency in the system arises from the store-and-forward nature of the communication networks used. Each part of the communication chain, first stores a message and then forwards it to the next link which produces a robust system but one which has intrinsically variable latency; In order to specify the conditions of conformance testing scheme it should be assumed that 1 h latency is within the normal operation of the system; The design of a test for the conformance testing scheme allows for the real world performance of the overall LRIT system. Hence, it should be a design objective of the test that terminals are not incorrectly failed and thus cause shipowners to needlessly replace equipment; Consider a poll request, it should be assumed that 8% of poll request/responses are lost, therefore, a fair test requires that the poll request is repeated in a sequence of attempts;
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 17 Table 3 Poll attempts and expectations
Attempt 1 2 3 P(Success) 0.92000 0.07360 0.00589 P(Failure) 0.08000 0.00640 0.00051 Expectation 0.92000 0.14720 0.01766 Cumulative P(Success) 0.92000 0.99360 0.99949 Cumulative Expectation 0.92000 1.06720 1.08486
Notes: Column heading Attempt P(Success) P(Failure) Expectation Cumulative P Cumulative Expectation
Explanation Number of attempts Probability of success on that attempt Probability of failure on that attempt Contribution to the expected number of attempts Cumulative probability of success Cumulative expectation of number of attempts required for a successful download
.9
Table 3 demonstrates that if the system retries the poll three times there is a 1 in 1,000 chance of wrongly failing the equipment due to statistical variation. The cumulative expectation shows that the cost of testing apparent non-compliant terminals is only increased by 8% compared to a regime which had only a single attempt; Consequently, it is recommended that each command is retried a maximum of three times, unless statistical variation can be excluded because of a network response, e.g., if the ship is in port and the equipment confirmed by the communication system as logged-out; The ASP recognized by the Administration or approved to conduct conformance testing should properly account for different network regions. For example, the Inmarsat-C network has four ocean regions and the test provider must ensure that they have addressed the region containing the equipment; This calculation assumes uncorrelated failures within the network which it is assumed to be true where there is a reasonable interval between attempts. To increase the likelihood that this assumption is correct it is recommended that the system retries are separated by at least 15 min; and A similar analysis may be performed for receipt of automatic transmission of LRIT information. The more transmissions of LRIT information that are received the greater confidence there may be that the equipment is conformant while not wrongly failing units. To achieve a 1 in 1,000 confidence of wrongly failing units, it is recommended that 40 out of 48 transmissions of LRIT information are received with a transmitting interval of 15 min, and 10 out of 12 transmission of LRIT information with a transmission interval of 1 h.
.10
.11
.12
.13
3.2 The table set out below specifies for each conformance test the related acceptance criteria and the tolerances or limits within which the functional performance of existing equipment should be before it is considered as being acceptable.
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MSC.1/Circ.1307 ANNEX Page 18 Table 4 Shipborne equipment performance acceptance criteria and tolerances
CTN Acceptance criteria Tolerances
EL1 1
CSP acknowledgement received
Maximum of 3 attempts separated by a minimum of 15 min
Confirmed by shipowner declaration on testing None registration form prior to testing including certificate type and reference number Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 None None None
2 3 4a 4b 5a 5b
Assumed compliant in accordance with standard None IMO guidelines and regulations Validated in conjunction with CTN 9 None Confirmed by ASP recognized by the None Administration or approved to conduct conformance testing based upon the confirmed inclusion of MEM code 11 (in the case of Inmarsat-C) and in the case of alternate hardware the compliance of the received message structure with the equipment manufacturers published standard for a message containing the generated Date and Time stamp Confirmed by ASP recognized by the None Administration or approved to conduct conformance testing based upon the confirmed inclusion of MEM code 11 (in the case of Inmarsat-C) and in the case of alternate hardware the compliance of the received message structure with the equipment manufacturers published standard for a message containing the generated Date and Time stamp Forms the subject of this test specification which None will be if the results are satisfactory and a Statement of conformity is issued by the ASP conducting the test (and the subsequent issuance of a Certificate of compliance by the Administration) CSP acknowledgement received and nil position Maximum of 3 attempts separated reports received within 15 min by a minimum of 15 min Confirmed by manufacturer or by validation of None technical specification
5c
6
7 8
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血液的生理功能

1 血液的生理功能有：①运输物质，营养物质、氧、代谢产物、激素等都要通过血液运送；②缓冲作用，血液中有5对缓冲系统，可对进入血液的酸性或碱性物质进行缓冲，使血液pH 值不发生较大波动；③防御功能，血液中的白细胞和各种免疫物质对机体有保护作用； ④生理止血功能，血液中有血小板、凝血因子等，当毛细血管损伤后，血液流出白行凝固而起止血作用；⑤体液调节功能，通过运输激素，实现体液性调节；⑥血浆构成机体内环境的一部分，借此进行物质交换。 2 急性心肌梗死的临床症状为：①心前区绞痛；②全身症状，包括发热、心动过速、白细胞增高；③胃肠道症状失常，如恶心、呕吐、腹涨④心律失常，如室性期前收缩或阵发性心动过速⑤低血压或休克；⑥心力衰竭 3全身麻醉时呼吸系统的并发症有反流误吸、呼吸道梗阻、通气不足及肺部并发症。 4预防早产的要点有：①孕期增加营养，禁止性交，防止感染；②注意身心健康，避免精神创伤；③高危孕妇应多卧床休息，特别是多向左侧卧；④子宫颈内口松弛者，应于妊娠14 一16周做子宫颈内口环扎术⑤积极治疗合并症。 5 .传染性非典型肺炎的症状和体征如下：起病急，以发热为首发症状，体温一般＞38 ℃，偶有畏寒；可伴有头痛，关节、肌肉酸痛，乏力，腹泻；常无上呼吸道卡他症状；可有咳嗽，多为干咳、少痰，偶有血丝痰；可有胸闷，严重者出现呼吸加速、气促，或明显呼吸窘迫。肺部体征不明显，部分患者可闻少许湿哆音，或有肺实变体征。 6 .确诊艾滋病的方法如下：凡属高危人群、伴严重机会感染或机会性肿瘤以及CD4/CD8比例倒置等，应考虑本病可能，并进一步做HIV 抗体检查。主要检查P24 抗体和P120 抗体。一般ELIsA连续2 次阳性，再做蛋白质印迹法（WB ）和固相放射免疫深沉试验（SRIP 7 .诊断疾病的步骤如下：（l ）搜集资料：包括详尽、完整、真实可靠的病史，全面系统而又重点深人的体格检查，以及含三大常规在内的各项实验室和特殊检查。（ 2 ）分析综合资料，形成印象：对上述资料进行综合归纳，分析比较，去粗取精，去伪存真，由表及里地总结患者的主要问题，将可能性较大的问题罗列出来，形成假设、印象，也就是初步诊断。（ 3 ）验证或修正诊断：初步诊断经过临床实践的验证，并进一步研究、分析病情，对初步诊断进行验证或修正，以明确诊断。一时难于确诊的病例，进行实验性治疗也是一项公认可行的准则，但需十分慎重。 8 .病历书写的基本要求如下：（l ）病历书写必须具备三性：①真实性，如实反映病情。询问病史时，不能有暗示性及想当然的看法；②系统性，主要症状必须按正规要求收集并注意描述有意义的阴性病史及体征；③完整性，各项资料均需按序收集。（ 2 ）必须按时按质完成各项病历书写：住院病历和完全病历应在人院后24 小时内完成：危重及抢救患者应及时记录首次病志，并随时记录抢救治疗情况。（ 3 ）符合统一规格。（4 ）文笔精练，术语准确，字迹整洁；简化字及外文缩写字母一律按国家规定或国际惯例格式书写，不得自行滥造。（ 5 ）病历需经上级医师用红笔审阅修改并签名，以明确责任。修改过多，应重新沙写，切忌剪贴或涂擦。 9 .阴虚证与阳虚证的临床表现如下：（l ）阴虚证：两颧红赤，形体消瘦，潮热盗汗，五心烦热，咽干口燥，舌红少苔，脉细数。（2）阳虚证：畏寒肢冷，神疲乏力，气短，口淡不渴，或喜热饮，尿清便溏；或尿少浮肿，面白，舌质淡胖，脉沉迟无力。 10．周围性面神经麻痹的症状常比中枢性面神经麻痹重，前者面部表情肌瘫痪使表情动作完全丧失（患侧鼻唇沟变浅、口角下垂，额部皱纹变浅或消失、眼裂变大、口角偏向健侧，

各种营养素的作用(生理功能)

各种营养素的作用蛋白质是维持生命不可缺少的物质。人体组织、器官由细胞构成，细胞结构的主要成分为蛋白质。机体的生长、组织的修复、各种酶和激素对体内生化反应的调节、抵御疾病的抗体的组成、维持渗透压、传递遗传信息，无一不是蛋白质在起作用。婴幼儿（幼儿食品）生长迅速，蛋白质需要量高于成人，平均每天每公斤体重需要2克以上。肉、蛋、奶、豆类含丰富优质蛋白质，是每日必须提供的。同时应注意①搭配的原则如动、植物食品的搭配；多品种食物的搭配。②不过量提供的原则。婴幼儿（婴幼儿食品）期蛋白质热量占总热量12%～14%为宜，过多会影响蛋白质正常功能的发挥，造成蛋白质消耗，影响体内氮平衡。 ③不过少提供的原则。蛋白质提供过少明显影响生长发育的速度，生化反应下降，抗病能力下降，甚至导致营养不良。结果不仅仅造成生长落后，还会因影响脑细胞发育，造成智力落后。脂肪是储存和供给能量的主要营养素。每克脂肪所提供的热能为同等重量碳水化合物或蛋白质的2倍。机体细胞膜、神经组织、激素的构成均离不开它。脂肪还起保暖隔热；支持保护内脏、关节、各种组织；促进脂溶性维生素吸收的作用。婴儿每天每公斤体重需要4克脂肪，动物和植物来源的脂肪均为人体之必需，应搭配提供。每日脂肪供热应占总热卡的20%～25%. 碳水化合物是为生命活动提供能源的主要营养素，它广泛存在于米、面、薯类、豆类、各种杂粮中，是人类最重要、最经济的食物。这类食物每日提供的热卡应占总热卡的60%～65%.任何碳水化合物到体内经生化反应最终均分解为糖，因此亦称之为糖类。除供能外，它还促进其他营养素的代谢，与蛋白质、脂肪结合成糖蛋白、糖脂，组成抗体、酶、激素、细胞膜、神经组织、核糖核酸等具有重要功能的物质。这类食物的重要性不言而喻，但也需提醒家长不要过早过多的加米粉；过多给孩子食物中加糖，这会导致肥胖，给孩子日后的健康埋下祸根。维生素对维持人体生长发育和生理功能起重要作用，可促进酶的活力或为辅酶之一。维生素可分两类，一类为脂溶类维生素包括Vit.A、D、E、K，它们可在体内储存，不需每日提供，但过量会引起中毒；另一类为水溶性维生素包括Vit.B、C等，这一类占大多数，它们不在体内储存，需每日从食物提供，由于代谢快不易中毒。维生素A、D、B、C、E、K、叶酸（叶酸食品）……各司其职，缺一不可，因此给孩子提供新鲜蔬菜（蔬菜食品）、水果（水果食品）、肝、蛋黄，适当吃点粗粮（粗粮食品），多晒晒太阳，就显得格外必要了。矿物质是人体主要组成物质，碳、氢、氧、氮约占人体重总量的96%，钙（钙食品）、磷、钾、钠、氯、镁、硫占3.95%，其他则为微量元素（微量元素食品）共41种，常为人们提到的有铁、锌、铜、硒、碘等。每种元素均有其重要的、独特的、不可替代的作用，各元素间又有密切相关的联系，在儿童（儿童食品）营养学研究中这部分占很大比例。矿物质虽不供能，但有重要的生理功能：①构成骨骼的主要成份； ②维持神经、肌肉正常生理功能；③组成酶的成分；④维持渗透压，保持酸碱平衡。矿物质缺乏与疾病相关，比如说缺钙与佝偻病；缺铁（铁食品）与贫血；缺锌与生长发育落后；缺碘与生长迟缓、智力落后等等，均应引起足够的重视。水是维持生命必需的物质，机体的物质代谢，生理活动均离不开水的参与。医学教|育网搜集整理婴儿体重的70%～75%是水，每天每公斤体重需水约150毫升，母乳中绝大部分是水，因此前4个月纯母乳喂养的小儿不必单喂水，但混合喂养和人工喂养的小儿一定要注意喂水。可以用150毫升乘上体重的公斤数得出需水量，再减去食入的奶量，就可得出应喂水的量。

脏腑的生理功能

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生理功能.

生理功能（一）人腦乃是控制身體的中心，接受關於環境及人體的內部功能持續而大量的感覺訊息。它處理此種訊息並且與儲存的資料比較，同時決定某些動作是否需要適應環境或調節身體內部的一些功能。腦亦被視為身體的資料儲藏室，同時是意識和情感的主要部位。活生生的腦乃是一個柔軟、容易壓縮的灰白組織的質塊，表面有明顯摺曲。鮮紅的動脈以及紫色的靜脈通過此種有溝的質塊。腦與它的血管完全被包覆在稱為腦膜的三層膜裡面。最外層形成一層堅韌、保護性的外套。腦的重量約為1.3公斤，包含數目非常多的神經細胞以及有支持作用的膠細胞。大腦被分為4葉-----額、、頂、枕葉，與顱骨的骨頭相對應。有些腦葉被深溝所分開，稱之為裂或溝。而小腦掌控一些無意識及自動的功能，譬如平衡，以及控制和協調身體隨意的運動。血管連接著心臟，不停地來回輸送血液到全身各個部分。用過的血液從身體回到心臟再喞送到肺臟，在肺臟與氧氣結合,然後回到心臟,再輸送到全身。（二）胃是一個中空的肌肉性囊袋，是消化道中最重要的部分。食物從食道進入之後，然後會從胃轉入十二指腸(小腸的第一部分)。胃有二個主要的功能：首先是將所吃的食物加以處理，並暫時貯存起來。以及胃會慢慢地將處理過的食物送入小腸。如果胃沒有貯存食物之功能，那我們可能必須經常的進食。胃可貯存食物並將其轉變為小份子，以便小腸內的酵素可對其作用。伴隨著此分解作用的是機械性的攪拌作用，其可利於食物和胃壁細胞產生之胃液均勻混合。這種胃液含有消化酵素和胃酸，胃酸可促進酵素作用並分解一些食物，而胃泌素則可增加胃肌肉的活動性刺激胃酸分泌。胃壁由肌肉層構成，以使其攪拌及混合食物。這些肌肉可使胃擴張及收縮。位可收縮到只剩50cc的容量，但又可迅速擴張至1500cc的容量。當吞嚥食物時，胃便由休息狀態中待命。這種放鬆狀態是由腦部的吞嚥中心所控制。強而有力的食道收縮迫使食物走向食道出口，亦既胃及食道接合處，此處可打開以便食物進入胃。食物在位中開始進行初步的消化，而其產物則會被迫推向十二指腸入口處之強勁肌肉環(稱為幽們括約肌)。當胃的內容物被轉變為食糜進入十二指腸。在食物之黏稠度足夠時，可使幽門括約肌打開，相反地如果一個時團碰到幽門則會刺激幽門則會刺激幽門括約肌收縮而關閉。這種反應可防止較大塊的食團進入小腸，而這些食團便會在送回胃中在接受胃酸及機械性消化作用，以便於分解為更小的食糜。（三）肺部是指兩個圓椎狀的器官位於胸腔內中心縱膈腔的兩側，主私人體與外界空氣進行氣體交換。肺是由海綿樣組織所構成，上面綴著無數個稱為肺泡的小氣囊。這個組織填滿了位於分枝成樹枝狀網路的呼吸道和血管之間的空隙。肺的底面坐落在橫膈膜之上，這是一片向上拱入胸腔的肌肉，把胸腔和腹腔完全隔開。肺的上尖處一直延伸到頸部，約比鎖骨高3~4公分。整個肺部都包圍在肋骨骨架之內。（四）肝是人体最大的器官，佔成人体重的五份一。分二葉：右葉比左葉大六倍。此葉從肝靜脈及肝動脈取到雙倍的血液功應。繫於肝下端的表面，有膽囊。除了熱量與蛋白質外，維生素A，B群，C，E都是特別需要注意的營養素。它們除了有利於

蛋白质的主要生理功能和作用

蛋白质的主要生理功能和作用张世林外语学院日语14.1 学号：201407030120 摘要本文阐述了蛋白质的定义概念、组成特点、结构性质、生理功能以及作用。关键词历史定义组成特点结构性质功能正文：在18世纪，安东尼奥·弗朗索瓦（Antoine Fourcroy）和其他一些研究者发现蛋白质是一类独特的生物分子，他们发现用酸处理一些分子能够使其凝结或絮凝。当时他们注意到的例子有来自蛋清、血液、血清白蛋白、纤维素和小麦面筋里的蛋白质。荷兰化学家格利特·马尔德（Gerhardus Johannes Mulder）对一般的蛋白质进行元素分析发现几乎所有的蛋白质都有相同的实验公式。用“蛋白质”这一名词来描述这类分子是由Mulder的合作者永斯·贝采利乌斯于1838年提出。Mulder随后鉴定出蛋白质的降解产物，并发现其中含有为氨基酸的亮氨酸，并且得到它（非常接近正确值）的分子量为131Da。对于早期的生物化学家来说，研究蛋白质的困难在于难以纯化大量的蛋白质以用于研究。因此，早期的研究工作集中于能够容易地纯化的蛋白质，如血液、蛋清、各种毒素中的蛋白质以及消化性和代谢酶（获取自屠宰场）。1950年代后期，Armour Hot Dog Co.公司纯化了一公斤纯的牛胰腺中的核糖核酸酶A，并免费提供给全世界科学家使用。

这一构想最早是由威廉·阿斯特伯里于1933年提出。随后，Walter Kauzman在总结自己对变性的研究成果和之前Kaj Linderstrom-Lang的研究工作的基础上，提出了蛋白质折叠是由疏水相互作用所介导的。1949年，弗雷德里克·桑格首次正确地测定了胰岛素的氨基酸序列，并验证了蛋白质是由氨基酸所形成的线性（不具有分叉或其他形式）多聚体。原子分辨率的蛋白质结构首先在1960年代通过X射线晶体学获得解析；到了1980年代，NMR也被应用于蛋白质结构的解析；近年来，冷冻电子显微学被广泛用于对于超大分子复合体的结构进行解析。截至到2008年2月，蛋白质数据库中已存有接近50,000个原子分辨率的蛋白质及其相关复合物的三维结构的坐标。蛋白质是一种复杂的有机化合物，旧称“朊（ruǎn)”。氨基酸是组成蛋白质的基本单位，氨基酸通过脱水缩合连成肽链。蛋白质是由一条或多条多肽链组成的生物大分子，每一条多肽链有二十至数百个氨基酸残基（-R）不等；各种氨基酸残基按一定的顺序排列。蛋白质的氨基酸序列是由对应基因所编码。除了遗传密码所编码的20种基本氨基酸，在蛋白质中，某些氨基酸残基还可以被翻译后修饰而发生化学结构的变化，从而对蛋白质进行激活或调控。多个蛋白质可以一起，往往是通过结合在一起形成稳定的蛋白质复合物，折叠或螺旋构成一定的空间结构，从而发挥某一特定功能。合成多肽的细胞器是细胞质中

脾的主要生理功能

脾的主要生理功能（1）主运化：运，即转运、输送；化；即消化吸收。脾主运化，是指脾具有把水谷化为精微，并进一步转输至全身各脏腑组织器官的作用。具体体现在运化水谷和运化水液两个方面。1）主运化水谷：是指脾对饮食物的消化、吸收的作用，及输布水谷精微以营养全身的功能。饮食入胃，经小肠的进一步消化吸收，脾的转输作用，将水谷化为精微，上输于心肺，并经心肺输布全身。脾的运化功能的正常进行，为化生精、气、血、津液提供了物质基础，亦为五脏六腑及各组织器官提供了充分的营养。若脾气健运，则营养充足，脏腑功能旺盛，身体强健。若脾失健运，消化吸收功能失常，则见腹胀、便溏、食欲不振、消瘦、倦怠乏力以及气血生化不足等病理表现。因此，有脾为“后天之本，气血生化之源”之称。2）运化水液：是指脾对水液具有吸收、转输和布散的作用，是人体水液代谢的一个重要环节。水入于胃，经脾转输作用上输于肺，经过肺的宣降作用，外达皮毛以润泽肌肤，化生汗液，下输于肾，经肾的气化作用，医|学考试网化生尿液排出体外。因此，脾是水液代谢的一个重要组成部分。若脾运化水液的功能强盛，可以防止水液停滞，否则，就会导致水湿停留，产生痰、饮、水湿等病理产物，而见腹泻、便溏、水肿的病理表现。正如《素问·至真要大论》所说：“诸湿肿满皆属于脾”。（2）主升清：是指脾的生理特点而言。升，上升、输布和升举；清，指水谷精微等营养物质。脾主升清，指脾具有将水谷精微上输心、肺以及头目，并通过心肺化生气血，以营养全身。其运化的特点以上升为主，故说“脾气主升”。脾主升清，是和胃的降浊相对而言。另一方面，脾气的升举作用，可以维持内脏的相对恒定。脾能升清，则水谷精微能够正常吸收和输布，且内脏不致下垂。若脾气虚弱，清气不升，则水谷不化，气血生化乏源，而见神疲乏力、头晕目眩、腹胀、便溏等症；或使脾气下陷，内脏下垂。（3）主统血：统，即统摄、控制、约束之意。脾主统血，是指脾能够统摄、控制血液在脉管内运行，而不致溢出脉外的作用。脾统血的作用是通过气的摄血来实现的。脾气充盛，不仅使气血生化有源，且能约束血液，使之行于脉管之内。若脾气虚衰，统摄无权，则血溢脉外，即“脾不统血”，可见月经过多、崩漏、便血、尿血、肌衄等症。

五脏生理功能概述

五脏生理功能概述一、心脏 1、心主血脉------指心具有推动血液在脉管中正常运行的作用。（1）主血：心主血的作用【1】心气能推动血液在脉管中正常运行，以输送营养物质于全身脏腑形体官窍。【2】心有生血的作用，指饮食水谷经脾胃之气的运化，化为水谷之精，水谷之精再化为营气和津液，营气和津液入脉，经心火（即心阳）的作用，化为赤色而成血液。（2）主脉：指心气推动和调控心脏的博动和脉管的舒缩，使脉道通利，血流通畅。 2、心主神志------指心有统帅全身脏腑、经络、形体、官窍的生理活动和主司精神、意识、思维、情志等心理活动的功能。二、肺 1、肺主气司呼吸------肺主呼吸之气和一身之气。（1）主呼吸之气：指肺通过呼吸运动，吸入自然界的清气，呼出体内的浊气，实现体内外气体交换的功能。（2）主一身之气：指肺有主司一身之气的生成和运行的作用【1】参与气的生成：自然界的清气和水谷精气在肺内结合，积聚于胸中的气海成为宗气，上出于喉咙以促进肺的呼吸运动，贯通心脉以行血气而布散全身温养各脏腑经络组织。【2】调节全身气机：肺有节律地一呼一吸运动，带动着全身气的升降出入运动，对全身气机起着重要的调节作用。 2、肺主宣发肃降

（1）肺主宣发：指肺气向上升宣和向外布散的功能。一是排出浊气，二是输布精微和津液，三是宣发卫气（卫气是指人体的免疫功能）（2）肺主肃降：指肺气清肃和向下通降的功能。一是吸入清气，二是输布精微和津液，三是清肃异物。 3、肺主行水------指肺具有疏通和调节水液运行的通道从而推动水液的输布和排泄的作用，是通过肺气的宣发和肃降作用来实现的。 4、肺朝百脉------指肺与百脉相通，全身的血液通过这些血脉流注、汇聚于肺，通过肺的呼吸，进行体内外清浊之气的交换后，将富含清气的血液不断输送到全身的作用，助心行血。 5、肺主治节------指肺辅助心脏治理和调节全身气、血、津液及各脏腑组织生理功能活动的作用。一是肺司呼吸，二是调节气机，三是助心行血，四是调节水液的代谢。三、脾脏 1、脾主运化------指脾具有将水谷化为精微，并将精微物质吸收转输到全身各脏腑组织的作用。（1）运化水谷：指脾对饮食物的消化吸收和对水谷精微的转输作用。一是通过脾气的气化和脾阳的温煦作用，使饮食物化为水谷精微，二是将水谷精微吸收并向全身转输。（2）运化水液：指脾对水液代谢的调节作用。脾通过对水液的吸收、转输作用，与肺、肾、三焦、膀胱等脏腑，共同调节和维持人体水液代谢的平衡。 2、脾主生血和统血（2）脾主生血：指脾具有生血的功能。脾运化的水谷精微是生成血液的主要物质基础，经心肺的气化作用生成血液。

人体生理功能

第一单元绪论学习主要内容及要点一、人体生理功能的概述人体生理功能研究的是正常人体生命活动的规律，包括正常人体生命活动的过程、机理、意义以及人体内外环境变化对生命活动的影响等。二、人体生理功能的主要研究方法有动物实验、人体实验和调查研究。动物实验包括急性和慢性实验两大类，是生理学研究采用的主要方法。研究人体生命活动的基本规律主要是在细胞和分子、器官和系统，以及整体这三个水平上进行的。三、人体生命活动的基本特征有新陈代谢、兴奋性和生殖。（一）新陈代谢是指人体与环境之间进行物质和能量交换，实现自我更新的过程，是生命的最基本特征。包括两个过程：①人体不断地从环境中摄取营养物质合成自身新的物质，并贮存能量的过程称做合成代谢；②人体不断分解自身旧的物质，释放能量供生命活动的需要，并把分解产物排出体外的过程称为分解代谢。物质的合成和分解称为物质代谢；伴随物质代谢而产生的能量的贮存、释放、转移和利用的过程称为能量代谢。（二）兴奋性人体对环境条件变化发生功能活动改变的能力或特性称为兴奋性。 1．刺激与反应（1）刺激：能引起人体发生功能活动改变的内外环境变化称为刺激。刺激按其性质可分为:①物理刺激②化学刺激③生物性刺激④社会因素和心理活动构成的刺激。（2）反应：接受刺激后，人体内部的代谢活动及其外部功能状态的改变称为反应。刺激要引起人体或组织产生反应必须具备三个条件:①刺激强度，②刺激作用的时间，③强度-时间变化率。（3）阈值：单位时间内，在刺激强度-时间变化率不变的条件下，能引起组织发生反应的最小刺激强度称为阈强度或阈值。其可作为衡量组织兴奋性高低的客观指标（阈值的大小和组织兴奋性的高低呈反变关系）。强度等于阈值的刺激称为阈刺激；强度大于阈值的刺激称为阈上刺激；强度小于阈值的刺激则称为阈下刺激。阈刺激和阈上刺激都能引起组织发生反应，而单个阈下刺激则不能引起组织的反应。（4）可兴奋组织：神经组织、肌肉组织和腺体组织的兴奋性较高，对刺激的反应迅速而明显，生理学中习惯上将这些组织称为可兴奋组织。 2．兴奋与抑制

肺的生理功能

中医基础理论：五脏——肺的主要生理功能（一）主气，司呼吸主，即主持、管理之意。肺主气，即指全身的气均由肺来主持和管理。肺主气包括主呼吸之气与主一身之气两个方面。肺主气，与呼吸功能有关，即肺主呼吸之气。呼吸功能是人体重要的生理功能之一。人体一生中，都在不断地进行着新陈代谢，在物质代谢过程中，一方面要消耗大量的清气，同时又不断地产生大量的浊气，清气需不断地进入体内，浊气需不断地排出体外，都要依靠肺的生理功能。肺既是主司呼吸运动的器官，又是气体交换的场所。通过肺的呼吸功能，从自然界吸入清气，又把体内的浊气排出体外，从而保证了新陈代谢的顺利进行。肺主气司呼吸功能正常，除了肺本身的生理功能正常外，还与气道的通畅与否有关。所谓“气道”，是指气体进出体内外的通道。包括气管、支气管、咽喉等。气道通畅，也是维持呼吸正常的重要条件。肺主一身之气，是指肺有主持、调节全身各脏腑经络之气的作用。肺主一身之气这一功能主要体现在气的生成，特别是宗气的生成方面。宗气是由脾胃化生的水谷精气与肺从自然界吸入的清气相结合，积于胸中而成。因此，肺的呼吸功能正常与否，直接影响到宗气的生成。而宗气通过心脉布散到全身也要靠肺气的协助。所以肺通过宗气的生成与布散，起到主持一身之气的作用。其次，肺主一身之气还体现在对全身的气机具有调节作用。实际上，肺的一呼一吸运动，就是全身之气的升降出入运动。肺主气的功能正常，气道通畅，呼吸就会正常自如。若肺有了病变，不但影响到呼吸运动，而且也会影响到一身之气的生理功能。例如，肺气不足，则呼吸微弱，气短不能接续，语音低微。若肺气壅塞，则呼吸急促、胸闷、咳嗽、喘息。此外，如果影响到宗气的生成和布散，失去对其它脏腑器官的调节作用，则会出现全身性的气虚表现，如疲倦、乏力、气短、自汗等。若肺一旦丧失呼吸功能，则清气不能吸入，浊气不能排出，宗气不能生成，人的生命也随之告终。（二）主宣发与肃降所谓“宣发”，即宣布、发散之意。肺主宣发，即肺脏具有向上、向外升宣布散的生理功能。这种功能主要体现在以下三个方面：其一是通过肺的气化，使体内浊气不断排出体外。其二是使气血、津液输布至全身，以发挥滋养濡润所有脏腑器官的作用；其三，宣发卫气，调节腠理之开合，通过汗孔将代谢后的津液化为汗液排出体外。若肺失宣散，即可出现咳嗽、吐痰、喘促胸闷、呼吸困难以及鼻塞、喷嚏和无汗等症状。所谓“肃降”，即清肃下降之意，清肃又包含有肃清的意思，即肃清、排出肺内毒邪与异物的作用。肺为娇脏，属清虚之器官，异物不容，毫毛必咳，肺内不能容有任何水湿痰浊和异物停留。由此可见，肺的清肃功能，乃是机体自卫功能的表现。而下降是指肺气向下通降的生理作用。肺主肃降作用主要体现于三个方面：一是吸入自然界清气；二是把肺吸入的自然界清气和脾转输来的水谷精微下行布散；三是肃清肺和呼吸道内的异物，以保持呼吸道的洁净。若肺的肃降功能失职，则可出现呼吸短促或表浅、胸闷、咳喘、咯血等病理现象。肺气的宣发和肃降功能是肺的生理功能相辅相成的两个方面。在生理情况下，两者相互依存、相互配合、相互制约，使呼吸保持平稳状态。在病理情况下，它们经常相互影响，没有正常的宣发，就没有正常的肃降；没有正常的肃降，也就不可能有正常的宣发。如果二者失调，出现“肺气失宣”、“肺失肃降”等病变，则见胸闷、咳嗽、喘息等症状。

生理功能的调节控制.

生理功能的调节控制关键词：调节控制本世纪40年代，通过运用数学和物理学的原理和方法，分析研究各种工程技术的控制和人体的各种功能调节，得出了一些有关调节和控制过程的共同规律，产生了一个新的学科，这就是控制论（cybernetics）。运用控制论原理分析人体的调节活动时，人体的各种功能调节可分为三类控制系统。一、非自动控制系统非自动控制系统是一个开环系统（open-loop system），其控制部分不受受控部分的影响，即受控部分不能反馈改变控制部分的活动。例如在应激反应中，当应激性刺激特别强大时，可能由于下丘脑神经元和垂体对血中糖皮质激素的敏感性减退，亦即糖皮质激素血中浓度升高时不能反馈抑制它们的活动，使应激性刺激能导致ACTH 与糖皮质激素的持续分泌；这时，肾上腺皮质能不断地根据应激性刺激的强度作出相应的反应（参见第十一章）。在这种情况下，刺激决定着反应，而反应不能改变控制部分的活动。这种控制系统无自动控制的能力。非自动控制系统的活动在体内不多见。二、反馈控制系统反馈控制系统是一个闭环系统（open-loop system），其控制部分不断接受受控部分的影响，即受控部分不断有反馈信息返回输给控制部分，改变着它的活动。这种控制系统具有自动控制的能力。图1-1是反馈控制系统的模式图。图中把该系统分成比较器、控制系统、受控系统三个环节；输出变量的部分信息经监测装置检测后转变为反馈信息，回输到比较器，由此构成闭合回路。在不同的反馈控制系统中，传递信息的方式是多种多样的，可以是电信号（神经冲动）、化学信号或机械信号，但最重要的是这些信号的数量和强度的变化中所包含的准确的和足够的信息。参考信息即输入信息（Si），它和反馈信息（Sf）比较后，即得出偏差信息（Se）。三者的关系为：Se=Si Sf如果是负反馈（negative feedback）,则Sf为负值；如果是正反馈（positive feedback），则Sf为正值。图1-1反馈控制系统模式图在负反馈情况时，反馈控制系统平时处于稳定状态。如出现一个干扰信息（Sd）作用于受控系统，则输出变量发生改变，导致该反馈控制系统发生扰乱；这时反馈信息与参考信息发生偏差，偏差信息作用于控制系统使控制信息（Sc）发生改变，以对抗干扰信息的干扰作用，使输出变量尽可能恢复到扰乱前的水平。例如，人体的体温经常可稳定在37°C左右，就是负反馈调控作用的结果。现在认为下丘脑内有决定体温水平的调定点的神经元，这些神经元发出参考信息使体温调节中枢发出控制信息来调节产热和散热过程，保持体温维持在37°C左右。如果人体进行剧烈运动，产热突然增加（即发生干扰信息，使输出变量增加）体温随着升高，则下丘脑内的温度敏感（监测装置）就发生反馈信息与参考信息进行比较，由此产生偏差信息作用于体温调节中枢，从而改变控制信息来调整产热和散热过程，使升高的体温回降，恢复到场37°C左右。在正反馈情况时，反馈控制系统则处于再生状态。正反馈控制系统一般不需要干扰信息就可进入再生状态，但有时也可因出现干扰信息而触发再生。例如，出现一个干扰信息作用于受控系统，则输出变量发生改变，这时反馈信息为正值，导致偏差信息增大；增大的偏差信息作用于控制系统使控制信息增强，导致输出变量的改变进一步加大；由于输出变量加大，又返回来加大反馈信息，如此反复使反馈控制系统活动不断再生。分娩过程是正反馈控制系统活动的实例。当临近分娩时，某些干扰信息可诱发子宫收缩，子宫收缩导

五脏生理功能概述知识讲解

五脏生理功能概述

营养素的生理功能作用

营养素的生理功能作用人体每日摄入的食物种类繁多，但就食物所含的营养素基本七大类，即蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、维生素、水、纤维素、矿物质。 1. 蛋白质：是生命存在的重要物质基础，分为动物蛋白和植物蛋白。生理功能：构成人体内各种细胞的主要原料：是构成人体各种组织器官，如皮肤、肌肉、毛发、骨骼、血液、内脏、大脑等的主要成分，还是补偿新陈代谢消耗及修补组织损失的主要物质。构成人体内各种重要物质（激素、酶、抗体、血红蛋白等）的重要成分，从而具有重要的调节各种生理活动、维持机体健康水平的作用。在体内氧化可以产生热量，是供热营养素之一。由蛋白质提供的热量占每日人体所需总热量的10%～15%，每克蛋白质可产生4千卡的热量。主要食物来源：动物性食物：瘦肉、水产品、内脏、奶类、蛋类。植物性食物：粮食、大豆及制品、食用菌(木耳、银耳、香菇、口蘑等)、藻类(海带、紫菜等)、硬果类(花生、瓜子、松子、核桃等)。摄入量的失衡：当摄取不足时，会出现新生细胞生成速度减慢、生长发育迟缓、体重减轻、身材矮小、容易疲劳、抵抗力降低、贫血、病后康复缓慢、智

力下降等状况。长期摄入量过剩，超出人体的需要，那么过量的蛋白质非但难以消化吸收，而且会造成胃肠、肝脏、胰脏和肾脏的负担，进而造成胃肠功能紊乱和肝脏、肾脏的损害，对身体不利。提高蛋白质价值：利用蛋白质互补作用提高蛋白质生理价值。例如，纯玉米粉制品蛋白质生理价值不高，若以科学的比例，加入一定量的黄豆粉，制成玉米粉和黄豆粉的混合食品，其蛋白质的生理价值将大有提高，几乎可以和牛肉媲美。这是由于玉米粉蛋白质中所缺乏的赖氨酸被黄豆蛋白质中所含有的高赖氨酸所弥补，而黄豆蛋白质中有限的蛋氨酸又为玉米蛋白质中多量的蛋氨酸所补充。所以，在不影响食品适口性和消化吸收率的前提下，应该注意应用蛋白质的互补作用，这是提高蛋白质营养价值的有效途径。合理加工、烹调提高蛋白质的消化吸收率。食物蛋白质的消化吸收率越高，利用率也越高，其营养效能发挥得也越好。同一种食物，加工与烹调方法不同，消化吸收率会有很大差别。例如，黄豆整粒炒，黄豆蛋白质消化率为54%，发芽后炒制，蛋白质消化吸收率可增加到65%左右，加工成豆浆后蛋白质消化吸收率可提高到85%，在豆浆中加入电解质(卤水或石膏)制成豆腐，其蛋白质的消化吸收率可以高达90%以上。 2. 脂类：是人身体重要组成部分，脂类包括脂肪（甘油酯、动物油、

五脏的生理功能

五脏的生理功能——中医对五脏的认识五脏，是心、肺、脾、肝、肾的合称。五脏的生理功能，虽然各有所司，但有其共同点，主要体现于以下两个方面：一是五脏都与精神活动有关。如《灵枢》说：“五脏者，所以藏精神血气魂魄也。”这说是说，心、肺、脾、肝、肾五脏都与精神活动有密切关系，这里所说的“精神血气魂魄”，即代表着不同的精神活动，并分别归属于五脏。如“心藏神”、“肺藏魄”、“脾藏意”、“肝藏魂”、“肾藏志”等。二是五脏主藏，以藏精气为主，藏而不泻。在古代，脏写作“藏”，含有储藏之意。五脏主藏，即五脏能储藏人体生命活动所必须的各种精微物质，如气、血、精、津等。具体来说，“心藏脉”、“肺藏气”、“脾藏营”、“肝藏血”、“肾藏精”等。五脏之间的各种生理功能活动，是相互依存、相互协调平衡的。肺肺居胸中，在诸脏腑中，肺的解剖位置最高，故称"华盖"。华盖原指古代帝王所乘车子的伞形遮蔽物，在此引申为肺的位置最高，居于诸脏腑之首。肺叶娇嫩，不耐寒热。易被邪侵，故又称"娇脏"。肺在五行属金，专司呼吸，主宣发肃降，通调水道，朝百脉，主治节，协助心君调节气血运行，故称"相傅之官"。其附属功能为：在志为忧（悲），在液为涕，在体合皮，其华在毛，在窍为鼻。肺的经脉与大肠相连，互为表里关系。肺的附属功能（一）在志为忧（悲），以五志分属五脏来说，肺之志为忧（悲）。忧愁和悲伤，均属非良性刺激的情绪反映，它对于人体的主要影响，是使气不断地消耗。由于肺主气，所以悲忧易于伤肺。反之，在肺气虚时，机体对外来非良性刺激的耐受性就下降，而易于产生悲忧的情绪变化。（二）在液为涕，涕是由鼻粘膜分泌的粘液，并有润泽鼻窍的功能。鼻为肺窍，正常情况下，鼻涕润泽鼻窍而不外流。若肺寒，则鼻流清涕；肺热，则涕黄浊；肺燥，则鼻干。（三）在体合皮，其华在毛所谓"合"，即配合之意。皮毛，包括皮肤、汗腺、毫毛等组织，为一身之表，是抵御外邪侵袭的屏障。肺与皮毛的相合关系主要体现在下述两个方面：一是肺主气属卫，具有宣发卫气，输津于皮毛等生理功能，从而滋润、温养皮毛；二是皮毛与肺配合，协调肺的呼吸作用。皮毛汗孔的开合，具有宣散肺气和调节呼吸的作用，《内经》称汗孔为"气门"，即气体出入之门。因为肺与皮毛在生理方面具有相互配合的密切关系，所以在病理方面，也常相互影响。例如，外界邪气伤人，常先从皮毛而入，首先影响到肺的生理功能，出现恶寒、发热、鼻塞、咳嗽等症状；若肺气虚弱，宣发功能失职，卫气、精津布散障碍，则肌肤苍白、憔悴，皮毛枯槁；或卫气机能虚弱，则自汗出，易于感受外邪；若肺气闭塞，毛窍闭敛，则可出现无汗而喘等症状。（四）在窍为鼻，鼻是肺之门户，为气体出入之通道，其生理功能包括通气和嗅觉，而鼻的功能主要依赖肺气的作用。肺气调和，则鼻窍通畅，呼吸通利，嗅觉灵敏。正因为鼻为肺窍，肺与鼻有密切联系，所以若肺或者鼻发生病变时，常相互影响。例如邪气犯肺，肺气失宣，则鼻的功能失常，可见鼻塞，流涕，不闻香臭，或鼻衄等。另外，外邪伤人，多从口鼻而入，可直接影响到肺，特别是温热邪气，多首先侵犯肺脏，从而出现发热，口渴，咳嗽，痰黄，鼻翼煽动等症状；而鼻的症状亦多从治肺入手。肺的生理功能（一）主气。司呼吸主，即主持、管理之意。肺主气，即指全身的气均由肺来主持和管理。肺主气包括主呼吸之气与主一身之气两个方面。肺主气，与呼吸功能有关，即肺主呼吸之气。呼吸功能是人体重要的生理功能之一。人体一生中，都在不断地进行着新陈代谢，在物质代谢过程中，一方面要消耗大量的清气，同时又不断地产生大量的浊气，清气需不断地进入体内，浊气需不断地排出体外，都要依靠肺的生理功能。肺既是主司呼吸运动的器官，又是气体交换的场所。通过肺的呼吸功能，从自然界吸入清气，又把体内的浊气排出体外，从而保证了新陈代谢的顺利进行。肺主气司呼吸功能正常，除了肺本身的生理功能正常外，还与气道的通畅与否有关。所谓"气道"，是指气体进出体内外的通道。包括气管、支气管、咽喉等。气道通畅，也是维持呼吸正常的重要条件。肺主一身之气，是指肺有主持、调节全身各脏腑经络之气的作用。肺主一身之气这一功能主要体现在气的生成，特别是宗气的生成方面。宗气是由脾胃化生的水谷精气与肺从自然界吸入的清气相结合，积于胸中而成。因此，肺的呼吸功能正常与否，直接影响到宗气的生成。而宗气通过心脉布散到全身也要靠肺气的协助。所以肺通过宗气的生成与布散，起到主持一身之气的作用。其次，肺主一身之气还体现在对全身的气机具有调节作用。实际上，肺的一呼一吸运动，就是全身之气的

血管的结构及生理功能

血管的结构与生理功能摘要：血管是生物运送血液的管道，血管系统由动脉，毛细血管和静脉组成。动

脉起自心脏、不断分枝，口径渐渐变细，管壁渐渐变薄，最后分成大量的毛细血管，分布到全身各组织和细胞之章。毛细血管再逐渐汇合成静脉，最后返回心脏。各类血管因管壁结构和所在位置不同，其功能也各有特点。按生理功能可将血管分为弹性储器血管、阻力血管、交换血管、容量血管、和短路血管。关键词：弹性储器血管阻力血管交换血管容量血管短路血管结构功能特点正文：弹性储器血管：主动脉、肺动脉主干及其发出的最大的分支。结构：大动脉管径大于10mm ，其管壁中有多层弹性膜和大量弹性纤维，大动脉管壁结构1内膜有较厚的内皮下层，内皮下层外为多层弹性膜组成的内弹性膜，由于内弹膜与中膜的弹性膜延续，故内膜与中膜的分界不清楚。2中膜成人大动脉有40~70层弹性膜，各层弹性膜由弹性纤维相连。3外膜较薄，由结缔组织构成，没有明显的外弹性膜。功能特点：主动脉与大动脉部分的血管，管壁坚厚，含有丰富的弹性纤维和胶原纤维，但平滑肌成分较少。这些弹性成分使得主动脉和大动脉血管在左心室射血时，左心室射血时，主动脉压升高，一方面推动动脉内的血液向前流动，另一方面使主动脉扩张，容积增大。因此，左心室射出的血液在射血期内只有一部分进入外周，另一部分则被贮存在大动脉内。主动脉瓣关闭后，被扩张的大动脉管壁发生弹性回缩，将在射血期多容纳的那部分血液继续向外周方向推动。从而使间断的射血变为连续性流动。此类血管具有的这种功能称为弹性储器作用。故此种大动脉又称为弹性储器血管。阻力血管：包括小动脉，微动脉，还有小动脉分支血管统称为阻力血管。结构：小动脉管径~1mm，有完整而发达的平滑肌，小动脉管壁平滑肌，受交感神经和激素的调节，产生收缩或舒张而调节血压。微动脉管径以下的动脉称微动脉。内膜无内弹性膜，中膜由1~2层平滑肌组成外膜较薄。功能特点：小动脉和微动脉收缩和舒张，血管壁平滑肌收缩，改变血管压，从而导致所阻力改变，可显著地影响器官和组织中的血流量。正常血压的维持在一定程度上取决于外周血管小动脉和微动脉对血流产生的阻力，即外周阻力。又因它们位于毛细血管之前，所以又叫毛细血管前阻力血管。交换血管：指毛细血管。结构：毛细血管管径一般6~8微米，血窦较大，直径可达40微米。毛细血管管壁主要由一层内皮细胞和基膜组成。细的毛细血管横切面由一个内皮细胞围成，较粗的毛细血管由2~3个内皮细胞围成。内皮细胞基膜外有少许结缔组织。在内皮细胞与基膜之间散在有一种扁而有突起的细胞，细胞突起紧贴在内皮细胞基底面，称为周细胞。具有收缩功能。它还参与毛细血管直径的双向调控；毛细血管受损时，周细胞还可增殖，分化为内皮细胞和成

16种元素的生理作用

所谓必须元素是指植物生长发育必不可缺少的元素。国际植物营养学会规定的植物必需元素的3条准则是：1。若缺少该元素，植物生长发育受到限制而不能完成其生活史；2缺少该元素，植物会表现出专一的病症（缺素症），提供该元素可预防或消除此症状；3该元素在植物营养生理中的作用是直接的，而不是因土壤培养液或介质的物理，化学或微生物条件所引起的间接的结果。根据上述标准，现以确定有17种元素是植物的必须元素，它们是：碳C氢H氧O氮N 磷P钾K钙Ca镁Mg硫S铁Fe锰Mo锌Zn铜Cu钼Mo氯Cl镍Ni，出来自于CO2和水中的C。O。H为非矿质元素外，其于14种元素均为植物所必须的矿质元素。植物必需元素通常分成两类：大量元素和微量元素，这种分类是根据植物对必需元素需要量的多少来划分的。大量元素是指植物需要量较大，其含量通常植物体干重0。1%以上的元素。大量元素有9种：即C。O。H等3种非矿物质元素和N。P。K。Ca。Mg。S等6种矿物质元素。微量元素是指植物需要量极微其含量通常为植物体干重0。01%以下的元素。这类元素再植物体稍多即会发生毒害。是 Fe.Mn.B.Zn.Cu.Mo.Cl.Ni等8种矿质元素。植物必需矿质元素的生理作用及缺素症植物必需的矿质元素都具有独特的生理功能，但概括的讲，植物必需的矿质元素再植物体内有3个方面的生理作用：1是细胞结构物质的组成成分，如N，P，S等。2作为酶，辅酶的成分成分或激活剂等，

如K。Ca等。3，起电化学作用，参与渗透调节，胶体的稳定和电荷的中和等，如K，Cl等。各种必需矿的主要生理作用简述 1氮植物主要吸收无机态氮，即铵态氮和硝态氮，也可以吸收利用有机态氮（尿素）氮的主要生理作用：氮是构成蛋白质的主要成分，可占蛋白质含量的16%-18%。细胞膜，细胞质，细胞核，细胞壁中都含蛋白质，各种酶也都是以蛋白质为主体的。2核酸。核苷酸。辅酶。磷脂。叶绿素。细胞色素及某些植物激素和维生素中叶含有氮。缺氮时，有机物质合成受阻，植株矮小，叶片黄化。氮素过多，叶色深绿，枝叶徒长。 2．磷主要生理作用。细胞质细胞膜和细胞核的组成成分。在植物的代谢起重要。参与光合作用和呼吸作用，是糖类，脂肪及氮代谢过程不可缺少的。磷还能促进糖类的运输。叶常呈红色或紫色。基部叶发黄，变干时成暗绿色。 3．钾是以游离态吸收并存在植物体内，不参与重要有机物的组成。1。作为酶的激活剂参与植物体内重要代谢。2。能促进蛋白质，糖类的合成，也能促进糖类的运输。3，可以增加原生质体的水合程度。从而使细胞保水力增强。缺钾，叶色缺绿生长缓慢叶缘糊。 4．硫主要以硫酸根的形式被植物吸收。硫与糖类蛋白质脂肪的代谢有密切的关系。缺硫叶脉缺绿，生长点开张度差。