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【】Optimization of chemically defined medium for recombinant Pichia pastoris for biomass production

【】Optimization of chemically defined medium for recombinant Pichia pastoris for biomass production
【】Optimization of chemically defined medium for recombinant Pichia pastoris for biomass production

Short Communication

Optimization of chemically de?ned medium for recombinant

Pichia pastoris for biomass production

A.Ghosalkar a ,V.Sahai a ,A.Srivastava b,*

a

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,New Delhi,India

b

School of Life Science and Chemical Technology,Ngee Ann Polytechnic,Clementi Road,Singapore Received 3September 2007;received in revised form 12January 2008;accepted 20January 2008

Available online 5March 2008

Abstract

A chemically de?ned medium was optimized for the maximum biomass production of recombinant Pichia pastoris in the fermentor cultures using glycerol as the sole carbon source.Optimization was done using the statistical methods for getting the optimal level of salts,trace metals and vitamins for the growth of recombinant P.pastoris .The response surface methodology was e?ective in optimizing nutritional requirements using the limited number of experiments.The optimum medium composition was found to be 20g/L glycerol,7.5g/L (NH 4)2SO 4,1g/L MgSO 4á7H 2O,8.5g/L KH 2PO 4,1.5mL/L vitamin solution and 20mL/L trace metal https://www.wendangku.net/doc/eb16350217.html,ing the opti-mized medium 11.25g DCW/L biomass was produced giving a yield coe?cient of 0.55g biomass/g of glycerol in a batch culture.Che-mostat cultivation of recombinant P.pastoris was done in the optimized medium at di?erent dilution rates to determine the kinetic parameters for growth on glycerol.Maximum speci?c growth rate of 0.23h à1and Monod saturation constant of 0.178g/L were deter-mined by applying Monod model on the steady state data.Products of fermentation pathway,ethanol and acetate,were not detected by HPLC even at higher dilution rates.This supports the notion that P.pastoris cells grow on glycerol by a respiratory route and are there-fore an e?cient biomass and protein producers.ó2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Pichia pastoris ;Statistical optimization;Glycerol;Chemostat

1.Introduction

The methylotropic yeast Pichia pastoris is widely being used as a host for heterologous protein expression.P.pas-toris can be grown to high cell densities in a de?ned mineral medium and being a eukaryote it can also perform many of the post translational modi?cations,such as protein fold-ing,proteolytic processing,disul?de bond formation and glycosylation (Cereghino et al.,2002).Proteins can also be secreted into the culture medium using suitable secretion

signal.In a typical P.pastoris fermentation process for pro-duction of heterologous proteins,strains are grown initially in a de?ned medium containing glycerol as the sole carbon source.During this time,biomass accumulates but heterol-ogous gene expression is fully repressed.Upon depletion of initial glycerol,a transition phase is initiated in which addi-tional glycerol is fed to the culture at a growth-limiting rate in order to derepress the cells and for further accumulation of biomass.Finally,methanol or a mixture of glycerol and methanol is fed to the culture to induce expression of het-erologous protein (D’Anjou and Daugulis,2000).The attainment of high cell densities has been shown to improve protein yields substantially (Stratton et al.,1998).Although glycerol is the preferred substrate for the high cell density fermentation of P.pastoris ,no estimates of kinetic parameters are available for growth of P.pastoris on glycerol limited culture.

0960-8524/$-see front matter ó2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.01.059

Abbreviations:Mut +,methanol utilization positive;AOX,alcohol oxidase;BSM,basal salt medium;RSM,response surface methodology;CBS,Central Bureau Seer.*

Corresponding author.

E-mail address:asriv2002@yahoo.co.in (A.Srivastava).Available online at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/eb16350217.html,

Bioresource Technology 99(2008)

7906–7910

The most commonly used medium for the high cell den-sity fermentation of P.pastoris is the basal salt medium (BSM)as mentioned in Pichia fermentation process guide-lines proposed by Invitrogen(USA).This is considered a standard one,though it may not be the optimum for pro-duction of every heterologous protein and has some impor-tant problems like precipitation,unbalanced composition and high ionic strength,etc(Cos et al.,2006).As a result of precipitation,the actual concentration of dissolved min-erals remaining in the medium is di?cult to determine and also the turbidity caused by the salts complicates the mea-surement of cell densities.Hence,it is necessary to develop a physiologically rational and suitable medium for recom-binant protein production process in P.pastoris.

The regulation of central carbon metabolism in P.pas-toris and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a lot more similar to each other and the growth of both the yeasts follows rather similar?ux ratio pro?les for amino acid biosynthesis (Sola et al.,2004).S.cerevisiae has long been used for the production of heterologous proteins and its nutritional requirements are well de?ned.Hence,a minimal medium designed for the growth of S.cerevisiae can be optimized for the biomass production of P.pastoris.Response surface methodology(RSM)is a commonly used method to?nd the optimal conditions,and also an e?cient statistical tech-nique for optimization of multiple variables with minimum number of experiments(Box and Hunter,1957;Francis et al.,2003).

In the present study,the experiments for optimization of medium components for biomass production of recombi-nant P.pastoris were carried out according to a Box–Behn-ken design(Box and Behnken,1960)with four factors. E?ects of these factors on the biomass production were sta-tistically analyzed with response surfaces,and the medium composition was optimized using mathematical equations and response surface plots.Continuous cultivation of recombinant P.pastoris strain was done at di?erent dilu-tion rates using glycerol as a limiting substrate.Monod’s model(Monod,1949)was applied to describe growth of recombinant P.pastoris on glycerol and parameters of the growth model were estimated by linear regression. 2.Methods

2.1.Strain and media

Recombinant P.pastoris strain GS115/Mut+/sec a IFN, expressing human interferon alpha-2b under the control of alcohol oxidase promoter was used for optimization stud-ies.Recombinant plasmid pPIC9carrying the gene coding for human interferon alpha-2b was integrated into the Pichia genome.Stock culture was maintained on YPD agar plates(yeast extract10g/L,peptone20g/L,dextrose20g/ L and agar20g/L).Optimization studies were performed with a Central Bureau Seer(CBS)based minimal medium designed for aerobic growth of S.cerevisiae(Aguilaniu et al.,2001).The composition of the minimal medium used is20g/L glycerol,7.5g/L ammonium sulfate, 3.5g/L potassium dihydrogen phosphate,0.7g/L magnesium sul-fate heptahydrate,1ml/L vitamins solution and10ml/L trace elements https://www.wendangku.net/doc/eb16350217.html,position of vitamins solution used is D-biotin0.05g/L,Ca D-panthothenate 1.00g/L, nicotinic acid 1.00g/L,myo-inositol25.0g/L,thiamin hydrochloride1.00g/L,pyridoxol hydrochloride1.00g/L and p-amino benzoic acid0.20g/L.The trace elements solution contained EDTA3g/L,zinc sulfate heptahydrate 0.9g/L,manganese chloride dihydrate155mg/L,cobalt (II)-chloride dihydrate60mg/L,copper(II)-sulfate penta-hydrate60mg/L,disodium molybdenum dihydrate 80mg/L),calcium chloride dihydrate0.9g/L,iron sul-fate-heptahydrate0.6g/L,boric acid200mg/L,and potas-sium iodide20mg/L.For medium preparation glycerol and ammonium sulfate along with di?erent level combina-tions of MgSO4á7H2O and KH2PO4were sterilized by autoclaving at121°C.Vitamins and trace metal solutions were?lter sterilized separately and then the whole medium was aseptically reconstituted.Finally,the pH was set at5.5 using0.5N NaOH prior to inoculation.Recombinant P. pastoris cells were cultivated in500mL Erlenmeyer?asks containing100mL of medium and incubated in an orbital shaker at30°C and250rpm.The composition of the med-ium used was speci?ed according to the experimental design.Samples were collected after every3h to determine the optical density and residual glycerol in the medium. After30h,when the glycerol was completely consumed and the cells reached the stationary phase,cells were har-vested by centrifugation at5000rpm for5min.

2.2.Experimental design and statistical analysis

Chemically de?ned medium was optimized for bio-mass production of recombinant P.pastoris by using glycerol as the carbon source and(NH4)2SO4as the nitrogen source.The concentrations of MgSO4á7H2O, KH2PO4,vitamin solution and trace metal solution in the medium were optimized by response surface method-ology using a four factor,three-level Box–Behnken design.Box–Behnken design is suitable for exploration of quadratic response surfaces and constructs a second-order polynomial model.The design consists of repli-cated center points and the set of points lying at the midpoints of each edge of the multidimensional cube that de?nes the region of interest.The four variables selected for the statistical analysis were designated as X1,X2,X3, X4and predicted response in the form of biomass pro-duction was designated as Y(Table1).The experimental design protocol for response surface methodology was developed using design-expert Software(Stat-Ease, USA).A total of29experimental runs with di?erent combinations of four factors were carried out(Table 1).As a dependent variable,biomass production was measured at the end of cultivation when glycerol was completely consumed.The factor levels for experimental design were decided based on the range obtained after

A.Ghosalkar et al./Bioresource Technology99(2008)7906–79107907

classical optimization by one-factor-at-a-time method (data not shown).

2.3.Chemostat cultivation

P.pastoris cultivations were performed at di?erent dilu-tion rates in a chemostat,using glycerol as the growth lim-iting nutrient in the optimized medium.The glycerol in the feed medium was kept at20g/L and rests of the medium components were kept at the same concentration as obtained in the optimized medium.Chemostat cultivation was performed in a3L fermentor(Applikon Instruments, Netherlands)with1L working volume.The pH was main-tained at5.5by automatic addition of3N NaOH/3N H3PO4.The temperature was controlled at30°C and air supply was maintained at1vvm through a ring sparger. Dissolved oxygen concentration(DO)was maintained above30%saturation by automatic adjustment of agita-tion rate between600and1000rpm and mixing pure oxy-gen with air if required.Silicone antifoam(Sigma chemicals,USA)was added at0.75ml per liter to suppress foaming.Sterilized medium was inoculated with5%(v/v) inoculum of$4OD600,grown under the controlled condi-tions at30°C and250rpm in a shaker incubator.Silicone rubber tubing attached with the peristaltic pumps(Watson Marlow,UK)was used for the feed medium and level con-trol was done by withdrawal of excess broth from the cul-ture surface.A steady state was considered to be reached at each dilution rate after four reactor volumes had passed through the system,as signaled by a constant cell density at the output.Samples were collected at di?erent steady states for the determination of cell density,residual glyc-erol,ethanol and acetate.

2.4.Analytical methods

For dry cell weight estimation,sample(5mL)was cen-trifuged at5000rpm for5min.The cell pellet was washed with distilled water and transferred to a pre-weighed alu-minium cup.The cells were dried to a constant weight at 80°C in a vacuum oven.Dry cell weight(DCW)was plot-ted against OD600of the samples in the range of linearity (0–1OD).Dry cell weight of1OD cells corresponded to 0.278g/L DCW.Glycerol,ethanol,acetate were measured by HPLC using Aminex HPX-87H column(BioRad, USA).

3.Results and discussion

3.1.Statistical analysis of results obtained by experimental design

The biomass concentration was measured in29di?erent medium compositions and corresponding results are

Table1

Box–Behnken design matrix for the four variables and experimental and predicted results under di?erent culture condition

Run MgSO4á7H2O(g/L)(X1)KH2PO4(g/L)(X2)Trace metal(mL/L)(X3)Vitamin(mL/L)(X4)Biomass(Y)(g/L)

Experimental Predicted 10.937.0210.00 1.007.807.86

2 1.497.0210.00 1.508.608.41

3 1.49 3.5120.00 1.508.428.52 40.93 3.5130.00 1.508.308.35

5 1.4910.5420.00 1.508.878.72 60.937.0220.00 1.509.239.41 70.93 3.5120.00 1.008.308.09 80.937.0220.00 1.509.459.41 90.9310.5420.00 2.008.798.91 100.937.0230.00 2.007.247.18 110.3710.5420.00 1.509.309.20 120.37 3.5120.00 1.507.437.58 130.377.0220.00 1.007.407.48 140.937.0230.00 1.009.309.12 150.377.0210.00 1.5010.099.9

6 160.9310.5410.00 1.509.829.85 170.9310.5430.00 1.507.707.73 180.377.0230.00 1.507.497.59

19 1.497.0220.00 1.009.659.83 200.937.0220.00 1.509.159.41 210.377.0220.00 2.009.609.51 220.93 3.5120.00 2.007.267.11 230.93 3.5110.00 1.507.367.41 240.937.0220.00 1.509.609.41 250.9310.5420.00 1.008.058.11 260.937.0220.00 1.509.609.41 270.937.0210.00 2.009.449.62

28 1.497.0220.00 2.007.627.62

29 1.497.0230.00 1.509.559.60 7908 A.Ghosalkar et al./Bioresource Technology99(2008)7906–7910

presented in Table 1.The experimental results were ?tted to a full quadratic second order polynomial equation by applying multiple regression analysis (see Eq.(1)).The parameters found for this equation and their signi?cance levels are shown in Table 2.

Biomass eg =L T?9:41t0:12X 1t0:45X 2à0:29X 3à0:046X 4

à0:17X 21à0:73X 22à0:34X 23à0:62X 2

4

à0:36X 1X 2t0:89X 1X 3à1:06X 1X 4à0:77X 2X 3t0:44X 2X 4à0:92X 3X 4

e1T

When the values of X 1–X 4were substituted in the above equation,the predicted biomass production (Y )was ob-tained (Table 1).The predicted values were compared with the experimentally obtained values,indicating that these data are in reasonably close agreement.The coe?cient of multiple determinations,R 2was found to be 0.97,which means that model could explain 97%of the total variations in the system.The relatively high value of R 2indicated that second order polynomial equation is capable of represent-ing the system under the given experimental domain.The signi?cance of the model terms was evaluated by applying the analysis of variance (ANOVA)test using design expert software.The P -value of less than 0.05indicated that the model term was signi?cant.All the model terms,except X 4were found to be signi?cant (Table 2).3.2.Optimization of medium

The three-dimensional response surfaces were generated to study the interaction among the four factors tested and to visualize the combined e?ects of factors on the biomass production (Fig.1).The response surfaces were studied in detail in order to determine the optimum medium compo-sition.The e?ect of interaction of the medium components on biomass production was tested by contour plots for all possible combinations of factors,keeping two factors

constant at a time.It was found by contour plots that when KH 2PO 4and MgSO 4á7H 2O were varied from higher to lower limit,an optimum point was found above and below

Table 2

Coe?cients of the response function to predict biomass production (Y )from Eq.(1)by regression analysis and their signi?cance values obtained by ANOVA Factor Coe?cient Value P -value a Intercept a 09.41<0.0001X 1a 10.120.0535X 2a 20.45<0.0001X 3a 3à0.290.0001X 4a 4à0.460.4214X 21a 5à0.170.0359X 22a 6à0.73<0.0001X 23a 7à0.340.0005X 24a 8à0.62<0.0001X 1X 2a 9à0.360.0024X 1X 3a 10+0.89<0.0001X 1X 4a 11à1.06<0.0001X 2X 3a 12à0.77<0.0001X 2X 4a 13+0.440.0004X 3X 4

a 14

à0.92

<0.0001

a

Signi?cant at P <

0.05.

Fig.1.Three-dimensional contour plots of the e?ect of factors on the biomass production.Each open circle indicates the predicted values estimated from Eq.(2).When the e?ect of two factors was plotted,the other two factors were set at middle level values.

A.Ghosalkar et al./Bioresource Technology 99(2008)7906–79107909

which the value of the response decreased.The optimum value for KH2PO4and MgSO4á7H2O were found to be 8.5and1g/L,respectively(Fig.1A).

Similarly,on the basis of contour plots the predicted optimal values for trace metal solution and vitamin solu-tion were found to be20mL/L(Fig.1B)and1.5mL/L (Fig.1C),respectively.The predicted optimum values obtained were also con?rmed by Design Expert-based numerical optimization.A veri?cation experiment was per-formed using the predicted optimum medium composition and the biomass concentration was measured as11.25g/L. It should be noted that this biomass value was higher than the center point as well as any of those in the initial29 experiments,indicating that the optimization was successful.

3.3.Chemostat cultivation

The application of continuous mode cultivation allows the generation of steady-state data,which is time invariant and thus describes the regulatory response of the culture to a given set of parameters much more precisely(Hoskisson and Hobbs,2005).Six di?erent dilution rates in the range of D=0.02–0.08hà1were studied to model the growth of P.pastoris using glycerol as a sole carbon source.The upper limit of the dilution rate was slightly below the maxi-mum speci?c growth rate of the organism,observed in a batch culture on glycerol.Monod’s model as described in Eq.(2)was applied to model the steady state data obtained from continuous cultivation.

l?

l max S

K StS

e2T

From the Lineweaver–Burk plot,the maximum speci?c growth rate,l max was found to be0.23hà1and the k s value describing the substrate concentration at half maximum growth rate l max,was determined to be0.178g/L.Biomass yield per gram of glycerol was found to be0.55g/g.Etha-nol and acetate were not detected by HPLC in any of the cultivations,even at higher dilution rates.This supports the notion that P.pastoris cells grow exclusively in a respi-ratory manner and are thus e?cient biomass and protein producers.

4.Conclusion

A chemically de?ned medium was optimized for maxi-mum biomass production of recombinant P.pastoris using statistical methods.The optimized medium composition for maximum biomass production was found to be20g/ L glycerol,7.5g/L ammonium sulfate,1g/L MgSO4á7H2O,8.5g/L KH2PO4,1.5mL/L vitamin solution and 20mL/L trace metal solution.One of the disadvantages of the commonly used basal salts medium and FM22med-ium(Stratton et al.,1998)is the use of ammonia as a nitro-gen source which is also used to control pH during the fermentation.At high cell densities due to nitrogen starvation it may lead to higher protease activity,which is detrimental for extracellular expression.In order to avoid nitrogen starvation,the optimized medium was pro-vided with ammonium sulfate as a nitrogen source.It can also be supplemented in the feed for high cell density culti-vation,as per requirement.

Continuous cultivation of recombinant P.pastoris strain was done at di?erent dilution rates using glycerol as a lim-iting substrate.Optimized medium resulted in a maximum speci?c growth rate of0.23hà1and a yield coe?cient of 0.55g/g,using glycerol as a sole carbon source.Monod model was used to describe the growth of recombinant P. pastoris on glycerol and it was found that even at higher dilution rates P.pastoris follows a respiratory route.Our investigation can be a valuable baseline study for designing mixed feeding strategies based on glycerol and methanol for growing P.pastoris cells.It may also support the opti-mization of the larger-scale production of glycosylated human proteins for biomedical applications. Acknowledgement

Authors are thankful to Indian Institute of Technology Delhi India for their?nancial support.

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C语言函数知识详解

函数<一> 第一节函数的定义和返回值 一、库函数 1、一个C语言源程序无论包含了多少函数,C程序总是从main 开始执行。 2、调用C语言标准库函数时要求的include命令。 1)用户在源程序include命令中应该包含头文件: #include include命令必须用#开头,系统提供的头文件以.h作为文件的后缀,文件名用””或<>括起来, 2)include命令不是C语句,因此不能在最后加分号。 3、标准库函数的调用: 1)一般调用形式为:函数名(参数表) scanf(“%d”,&a);printf(“%d”,a); putchar(ch);ch=getchar(); 2)库函数的调用可以两种形式出现: 1出现在表达式中: 例:y=pow(x,2,5)+1.3 2作为独立语句完成某程操作: 例:printf(“********\n”); 常用函数: 数学函数:调用数学函数时,要求在源文件中包含以下命令行:

#include“math.h” 例:int abs(int x)double cos(double x) 字符函数和字符串函数 调用字符函数时,要求在源文件中包含头文件”ctype.h”;调用字符串 函数时,要求在源文件 中包含头文件”string.h” 如调用:int isalpha(int ch)检查ch是否为字母。 输入输出函数:调用输入输出函数时,要求在源文件中包含头文件”stdio.h” 例:调用:putchar getchar gets puts 二、函数的定义和返回值 1、函数定义的语法 函数首部(main()) 函数1 C 语定义说明部分 言 程函数体 序 执行语句部分

C语言中变量和函数的声明与定义

变量 在将变量前,先解释一下声明和定义这两个概念。声明一个变量意味着向编译器描述变量的类型,但并不为变量分配存储空间。定义一个变量意味着在声明变量的同时还要为变量分配存储空间。在定义一个变量的同时还可以对变量进行初始化。 局部变量通常只定义不声明,而全局变量多在源文件中定义,在头文件中声明。 局部变量 在一个函数的内部定义的变量是内部变量,它只在本函数范围内有效。自动变量auto 函数中的局部变量,其缺省格式是自动变量类型。例如,在函数体中int b, c=3。和auto int b, c=3。是等价的。 自动变量是动态分配存储空间的,函数结束后就释放。自动变量如不赋初值,则它的值是一个不确定的值。 静态局部变量static 静态局部变量是指在函数体内声明和定义的局部变量,它仅供本函数使用,即其他函数不能调用它。静态局部变量的值在函数调用结束后不消失而保留原值,即其占用的存储单元不释放,在下一次函数调用时,该变量已有值,就是上一次函数调用结束时的值。 静态局部变量在静态存储区分配存储单元,在程序的整个运行期间都不释放。静态局部变量是在编译时赋初值的,即只赋初值一次。

在SDT编译器中,建议对静态局部变量赋初值,否则该静态局部变量的初值为不确定值。在其他编译器中,未初始化的静态局部变量的初值可能为零,这由具体的编译器所决定,使用前最好测试一下。 寄存器变量register 带register修饰符的变量暗示(仅仅是暗示而不是命令)编译程序本变量将被频繁使用,如果可能的话,应将其保留在CPU的寄存器中,以加快其存取速度。 对于现有的大多数编译程序,最好不要使用register修饰符。因为它是对早期低效的C编译程序的一个很有价值的补充。随着编译程序技术的进步,在决定哪些变量应当被存到寄存器中时,现在的C编译程序能比程序员做出更好的决定。 全局变量 在函数之外定义的变量称为外部变量,外部变量是全局变量,它可以为本文件中其他函数所共用。全局变量都是静态存储方式,都是在编译时分配内存,但是作用范围有所不同。 静态外部变量static 静态外部变量只能在本文件中使用。所以静态外部变量应该在当前源文件中声明和定义。 外部变量extern 定义函数中的全局变量时,其缺省格式是外部变量类型。外部变量应该在一个头文件中声明,在当前源文件中定义。外部变量允许其他文件引用。

C语言-函数

C语言(函数,变量作用范围)二 1 C语言程序由函数组成,以下说法正确的是( A ). A)主函数可以在其它函数之前,函数内不可以嵌套定义函数 B)主函数可以在其它函数之前,函数内可以嵌套定义函数 C)主函数必须在其它函数之前,函数内不可以嵌套定义函数 D)主函数必须在其它函数之前,函数内可以嵌套定义函数 2 以下说法中不正确的是( A )。 A) 主函数main中定义的变量在整个文件或程序中有效 B) 不同的函数中可以使用相同名字的变量 C) 形式参数是局部变量 D) 在一个函数内部,可以在复合语句中定义变量,这些变量只在本复合语句中有效 3 下面函数 f(double x) {printf(“%6d\n”,x);} 的类型为( C ). A) 实型B)void 类型C)int 类型 D) A)、B)、C)均不正确 4 以下说法中正确的是( C ). A)C语言程序总是从第一个定义的函数开始执行 B)在C语言程序中,要调用的函数必须在main函数中定义 C)C语言程序总是从main函数开始执行 D)C语言程序中,main函数必须放在程序的开始部分 5 以下正确的函数定义是( C ). A) double fun(int x,int y); {int z; z=x+y; return z;} B) fun(int x,y) {int z; return z;} C) double fun(int x,int y) {double z; z=x+y; return z;} D) double fun( x, y) {int x,y; double z; z=x+y; return z;} 6 定义为void类型的函数,其含义是( A ). A)调用函数后,被调用的函数没有返回值 B)调用函数后,被调用的函数不返回 C)调用函数后,被调用的函数的返回值为任意的类型 D)以上三种说法都是错误的

c语言函数的定义和调用解读

本节介绍C程序的基本单元--函数。函数中包含了程序的可执行代码。每个C 程序的入口和出口都位于函数main(之中。main(函数可以调用其他函数,这些函数执行完毕后程序的控制又返回到main(函数中,main(函数不能被别的函数所调用。通常我们把这些被调用的函数称为下层(lower-level函数。函数调用发生时,立即执行被调用的函数,而调用者则进入等待状态,直到被调用函数执行完毕。函数可以有参数和返回值。程序员一般把函数当作“黑箱”处理,并不关心它内部的实现细节。当然程序员也可以自己开发函数库。说明一点,函数这一节很重要,可以说一个程序的优劣集中体现在函数上。如果函数使用的恰当,可以让程序看起来有条理,容易看懂。如果函数使用的乱七八糟,或者是没有使用函数,程序就会显得很乱,不仅让别人无法查看,就连自己也容易晕头转向。可以这样说,如果超过100行的程序中没有使用函数,那么这个程序一定很罗嗦(有些绝对,但也是事实。一、函数的定义一个函数包括函数头和语句体两部分。函数头由下列三不分组成:函数返回值类型函数名参数表一个完整的函数应该是这样的:函数返回值类型函数名(参数表 { 语句体; } 函数返回值类型可以是前面说到的某个数据类型、或者是某个数据类型的指针、指向结构的指针、指向数组的指针。指针概念到以后再介绍。函数名在程序中必须是唯一的,它也遵循标识符命名规则。参数表可以没有也可以有多个,在函数调用的时候,实际参数将被拷贝到这些变量中。语句体包括局部变量的声明和可执行代码。我们在前面其实已经接触过函数了,如abs(,sqrt(,我们并不知道它的内部是什么,我们只要会使用它即可。这一节主要讲解无参数无返回值的函数调用。二、函数的声明和调用为了调用一个函数,必须事先声明该函数的返回值类型和参数类型,这和使用变量的道理是一样的(有一种可以例外,就是函数的定义在调用之前,下面再讲述。看一个简单的例子: void a(; /*函数声明*/ main( { a(; /*函数调用*/ } void a( /*函数定义*/ { int num; scanf(%d,# printf(%d\n,num; } 在main(的前面声明了一个函数,函数类型是void型,函数名为a,无参数。然后在main(函数里面调用这个函数,该函数的作用很简单,就是输入一个整数然后再显示它。在调用函数之前声明了该函数其实它和下面这个程序的功能是一样的: main( { int num; scanf(%d,#

C语言函数的定义及使用(精)

广东技术师范学院实验报告 学院:广东技术师范学院专业:软件工程班级:09软件成绩:姓名:林楚金学号:2009034743005 组别:组员: 实验地点:工业中心203 实验日期:2010.6.22 指导教师签名: 实验2项目名称:函数的定义及使用 1、实验目的 理解函数的定义和使用方法,能够根据要求熟练地定义和调用函数。 2、实验内容 题目1:编写程序,计算 5.2 ) 50 (sin?= y #include #include main() { double a,y; a=sin(3.14*50/180); y=pow (a,2.5); printf("%f\n",y); } 题目2:编写程序,输入x的值,计算e|ln2x|的值。#include #include main() { double x,a,b,c; scanf("%lf",&x); b=log(2*x);

a=exp(c); printf("%lf\n",a); } 题目3:输入一个字符,如果是大写字母,则转换成小写字母后输出,如果是其他字符,则原样输出。 #include main() { char a; scanf("%c",&a); if(a>='A' && a<='Z') printf("%c\n",a+32); else printf("%c\n",a); } 题目4:定义一个函数,该函数的功能是计算圆周长,参数为圆的半径。注意需给出验证实例证明程序的正确性。#include

C语言函数习题及答案

第6章函数习题 一、选择题 1. 一个完整的C源程序是【】。 A)要由一个主函数或一个以上的非主函数构成 B)由一个且仅由一个主函数和零个以上的非主函数构成 C)要由一个主函数和一个以上的非主函数构成 D)由一个且只有一个主函数或多个非主函数构成 2. 以下关于函数的叙述中正确的是【】。 A)C语言程序将从源程序中第一个函数开始执行 B)可以在程序中由用户指定任意一个函数作为主函数,程序将从此开始执行 C)C语言规定必须用main作为主函数名,程序将从此开始执行,在此结束 D)main可作为用户标识符,用以定义任意一个函数 3. 以下关于函数的叙述中不正确的是【】。 A)C程序是函数的集合,包括标准库函数和用户自定义函数 B)在C语言程序中,被调用的函数必须在main函数中定义 C)在C语言程序中,函数的定义不能嵌套 D)在C语言程序中,函数的调用可以嵌套 4. 在一个C程序中,【】。 A)main函数必须出现在所有函数之前 B)main函数可以在任何地方出现 C)main函数必须出现在所有函数之后 D)main函数必须出现在固定位置 5. 若在C语言中未说明函数的类型,则系统默认该函数的数据类型是【】 A)float B)long C)int D)double 6. 以下关于函数叙述中,错误的是【】。 A)函数未被调用时,系统将不为形参分配内存单元 B)实参与形参的个数应相等,且实参与形参的类型必须对应一致 C)当形参是变量时,实参可以是常量、变量或表达式 D)形参可以是常量、变量或表达式 7. C程序中各函数之间可以通过多种方式传递数据,下列不能用于实现数据传递的方式是【】。 A)参数的形实(哑实)结合 B)函数返回值 C)全局变量 D)同名的局部变量 8. 若函数调用时参数为基本数据类型的变量,以下叙述正确的是【】。 A)实参与其对应的形参共占存储单元 B)只有当实参与其对应的形参同名时才共占存储单元 C)实参与对应的形参分别占用不同的存储单元 D)实参将数据传递给形参后,立即释放原先占用的存储单元 9. 函数调用时,当实参和形参都是简单变量时,他们之间数据传递的过程是【】。 A)实参将其地址传递给形参,并释放原先占用的存储单元 B)实参将其地址传递给形参,调用结束时形参再将其地址回传给实参 C)实参将其值传递给形参,调用结束时形参再将其值回传给实参

c语言_函数的定义与使用

实验报告 实验目的: 1.熟练掌握函数的定义与使用 实验内容: 1.有如下的一段程序,程序调用maxt()函数将两个数中的最大值输 出,并根据最大值打印相应行的#号,请定义printat()函数、maxt()函数与printnx()函数并将主程序补充完整,使之正常运行。 #include void main() { int a=3,b=4,max; printat();//打印一行@号 printf("打印ab行的#号\n"); max=maxt(a,b); printnx(max);//打印max行#号 } 阅读知识:.如何在主函数中使用用户自定义的函数

函数调用基础知识 用户自定义函数在main()函数中调用时的三种方式: 1.函数语句 把函数调用作为一个语句,适用无返回值的函数 printstar( ); 2函数表达式 函数出现在一个表达式中,适用有返回值的函数 c=2*max(a,b); 3函数参数 函数调用作为一个函数的实参,适用有返回值的函数 m=max(a,max(b,c)) #include void main() { void printat(); void printnx(int n); int maxt(int a,int b); int a=3,b=4,max; printat(); printf("打印ab行的#号\n"); max=maxt(a,b); printnx(max); } void printat() { printf("@@@@@@@@@\n");

} void printnx(int n) { for(int i=1;i<=n;i++) { printf("#########\n"); } } int maxt(int a,int b) { int z; if(a>=b) z=a; else z=b; return (z); } 2.有如下的一段程序,程序调用max3t()函数将三个数中的最大值输 出,请定义max3t并将主程序补充完整,使之正常运行。 #include void main() { int a=3,b=4,c=8,max;

单片机C语言函数

一》宏定义: 1、不带参数: #define 标识符常量表达式 /*#define是宏定义命令,宏名(标识符)好习惯用大写*/ #define NIL 0x80 2、带参数:/*相当于小函数*/ #define 宏名(参数表) 字符串 /*不仅要时行字任串替换还要进行参数的替换,在宏定义时,宏名与带参数的括弧之间不应该加空格,否则将空格以后的字符串都作为替代字符串的一部分,这可是很容易出错的*/ 如:#define SQ(a,b) a*b 使用:x=12;y=10;area=SQ(x,y);/*则area=12*10=120*/ 二》文件包含: #include <文件名>或#include "文件名" /*在C中用双引用形式更保险,在C51中常用物是尖括弧形式*/ 三》条件编译: /*一般源程序中的所有程序行都参加编译,但有时希望对其中一部分内容只在满足一定条件下才进行编译,也就是对一部分内容指定编译的条件。*/ #if、#elif、#else、#endif、#ifdef、#ifndef /*选择不同的编译范围,产生不同的代码,提供通用性。*/ /*如对8051在6MHZ与12MHZ下有*/ #ifdef cpu==8051 #define FREQ 6 /*程序段*/ #else #define FREQ 12/*程序段*/ #endif /*这样下面的原程序不用做任何修改便可以使用于两种时钟频率的单片机系统*/ 四》其他: 1、#error:捕捉不可预料的编译条件 #if (myv!=0&&myv!=1)/*假定其值必为0或1*/ #error myv must be 1 or 0/*出错时显示*/ #endif

C语言函数练习题及答案

C语言函数练习题及答案

1 【单选题】 在下列关于C函数定义的叙述中,正确的是? ?A、 函数可以嵌套定义,但不可以嵌套调用; ? ?B、 函数不可以嵌套定义,但可以嵌套调用; ? ?C、 函数不可以嵌套定义,也不可以嵌套调用; ? ?D、 函数可以嵌套定义,也可以嵌套调用; ? 我的答案:B得分:2.5分 2 【单选题】 下面函数调用语句含有实参的个数为? nc((exp1,exp2),(exp3,exp4,exp5));

?A、 1 ? ?B、 2 ? ?C、 4 ? ?D、 5 ? 我的答案:B得分:2.5分 3 【单选题】 C语言中函数返回值的类型是由以下哪个选项决定的? ?A、 函数定义时指定的类型; ? ?B、

return语句中的表达式类型; ? ?C、 调用该函数时的实参的数据类型; ? ?D、 形参的数据类型; ? 我的答案:A得分:2.5分 4 【单选题】 以下关于函数叙述中,错误的是? ?A、 函数未被调用时,系统将不为形参分配内存单元; ? ?B、 实参与形参的个数必须相等,且实参与形参的类型必须对应一致; ? ?C、 当形参是变量时,实参可以是常量、变量或表达式; ?

?D、 如函数调用时,实参与形参都为变量,则这两个变量不可能共享同一内存空间; ? 我的答案:B得分:2.5分 5 【单选题】 若函数调用时参数为基本数据类型的变量,以下叙述正确的是? ?A、 实参与其对应的形参共享内存存储单元; ? ?B、 只有当实参与其对应的形参同名时才共享内存存储单元; ? ?C、 实参与对应的形参分别占用不同的内存存储单元; ? ?D、 实参将数据传递给形参后,立即释放原先占用的内存存储单元; ? 我的答案:C得分:2.5分

C语言函数及其知识点

C语言函数(Function)及其知识点 绍兴文理学院沈红卫 C语言是函数的语言。这话的内涵很丰富,个人以为,可从以下几个方面去理解和把握函数这部分内容,领会此话的意义。 一、小函数大程序 意思是说,一个C语言程序可以很大,但是通常是由多个函数组成的。从这个意义上说,函数往往就比较短小。 一个程序需要由几个函数来实现,这个取决于你对C语言的掌握程度和领悟能力,没有硬性规定,以方便编程、方便调试、方便升级为原则。 一个程序分解成几个函数,有利于快速调试程序,也有利于提高程序代码的利用率。因为函数是可以多次被调用的,调用次数和调用场合没有限制。除main函数以外,任何一个函数都可以调用另外一个函数。 不要指望一个函数解决程序所有问题。每个函数应该做自己最应该做的事情,即相对独立的功能。 二、main函数及其作用 C语言程序,不管多大,还是多小,永远只能有一个而且只能有一个m ain函数。 main函数可以放在程序的任何一个地方,可以在程序首部,也可以在程序中间,也可以在程序尾部。 C语言程序,不管main函数在程序的什么地方,一定是从main函数开始执行程序,从main函数结束程序。所以,main函数又被称为主函数,即主心骨、主要的意思。 main函数通常定义成void类型,形式参数也通常为void类型。 三、函数的种类 函数通常分为库函数(标准函数)和自定义函数(用户函数)两大类。 库函数是指由C语言本身提供的,可供直接调用以实现特定功能的函数,例如:求正弦函数(sin())、求平方根函数(sqrt())、输出函数(printf())等等。

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