新托福阅读讲义
新托福阅读讲义
张夏
一. 准备知识
1.iBT托福阅读理解的形式特点
(1) 文章数量:3-5篇(和听力相对应:3篇阅读,9个听力段子或5篇阅读,6个听力段子)
(2) 文章长度:650-750词/篇
(3) 题目数量:12-14个/篇(每篇有一个多选,形式为6选3,7选5或9选7)
(4) 测试时间:20分钟/篇
(5) 测试分数:0-30分(由原始分42分换算到标准分30分)
2.iBT托福阅读的考察重点
(1) 主题:辨析文章的主要观点,并与局部小观点区分;辨析段落主题.(注:所有文章都有标题)
(2) 细节:概括性信息的把握并判别具体信息的真伪---- TRUE? FALSE? NOT GIVEN?
General statement ideas
Some details
(3) 词汇:辨析词汇和短语的含义,并通过上下文推断某些词汇和短语的含义:认知(一词多义);词汇推断
(4) 推断:根据上下文推断出隐藏的信息
(5) 态度:根据文章描述判断作者意图和态度:WHY目的;HOW手段.
(6) 结构:判断句子和句子之间的逻辑关系,并确定段落的结构
托福阅读是以句子为核心的
3.阅读的本质:
(1) 获取有效信息
(2) 消除阅读障碍
4.文章结构特点
(1) 文章主体分为结构主体和细节主体.
结构主体(支撑): 主题段(文章的前几段)和主题句(每段的前几句).
细节主体(填充)
(2) 文章具体结构如下:
Intro: background(细节) & topic(结构)
Body: sub-topic(结构), analysis(细节) & evidence(细节) Conclusion: topic(结构)
5.快速笔记方法
(1) 快速笔记的意义:
辅助思维框架形成
索引功能
(2) 快速笔记的内容
结构主体的核心词
时间和数字:同步记录时间及相应的事件;一律记录为数字
人名\地名\专有名词:使用首字母标记
举例主体
新概念和核心概念
重要的逻辑关系
(3) 快速笔记的简单符号体系
Ⅰ、因果关系：A → B
Ⅱ、比较关系：＜＞＝
Ⅲ、对比关系：A ≠ B
Ⅳ、类比关系: A ≈B
Ⅴ、最高级: most A
Ⅵ、否定 not A
Ⅶ、分类表格或大括号
Ⅷ、定义 A:=
Ⅸ、举例 e.g
Ⅹ、过程 A — B — C
(4)快速笔记的重要性和必要性----阅读中的指导性逻辑(PREDICTING)
(5) 好笔记的特点:
笔记中有清晰的逻辑脉络
根据笔记可以对文章进行有效复述
6.阅读和口语的关系:
(1) 规范口语的逻辑
(2) 提供口语表达的素材
二.阅读方法
1.精读----句子结构分析和解析方法
(1) 句子阅读中的障碍
1) 定语
前置定语: adj+n
后置定语:
n+ adj phrase形容词短语: a book useful for you
prep phrase介词短语: a pen on the desk
v-ing/-ed phrase分词短语: a person walking on the road; a
tool developed for the project 不定式: a way to solve the problem
注:
?分词短语作后置定语时,其逻辑主语是其修饰的名词
?不定代词只能用后置定语修饰
?不定式作后置定语其逻辑主语是第三方: sb use the way to solve
the problem
定语从句:
?关系代词引导定语从句: that, which, who, whom, whose( 其
中that, which, who, whom引导的是非完整句, whose 引导的
是完整句)
?关系连词: when, where, why在句子中不作成分, 引导的是完
整句
?介词+关系代词: in which, 此关系代词不包括what
2) 同位语: 同插入语一样处理----删除
A, B( 定语从句/同位语从句)
A, or B
A that + 句子( 完整句)
A of B: the city of Beijing
3) 状语: 处理方式----隔离
Adv 副词
Prep phrase 介词短语
分词短语
不定式
注: 非谓语动词作状语其逻辑主语是句子的主语
4) 并列结构
并列连词的用法: 并列连词连接结构\功能\性质均相同的成分----必须完全对等
5) that引导的各种从句
S+V+THAT+句子(完整句)----宾语从句
S+系动词+表语+句子----表语从句
It + Vi + that +句子
It + be + adj +that +句子完整句
That +句子+ V
N+ that +句子+ 同位语(完整句)
定语从句(非完整句)
S + Vi + that+ 句子: The sun rises that is bright.
S + be + adj + that + 句子: The desk is clean that is used by the student(定语从句); The fact is true that Tom is handsome(同位语从句).
(2) 复杂句的阅读方法----层次化句子阅读法
1) 括号匹配
……关联词(完整句)
…… (关联词+ 非完整句)
2) 划右括号的条件:
句子终结
连接句子的并列连词或标点符号之前
例1: However, for many years physicists thought that (atom and molecules always were much more likely to emit light spontaneously) and that (stimulated emission thus always would be much weaker)
例2: It appeared that 〔Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families (that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial Revolution)〕.
例3: The history of clinical nutrition,or the study of the relationship between health and how the body takes in and utilizes food substances(同位语,删除), can be divided into four distinct eras: the first began in the nineteenth century and extended into the early twentieth century (when it was recognized for the first
time that (food contained constituents (that were essential for human function) )and that (different foods provided different amounts of these essential agents).
例4: Using techniques first developed for the offshore oil and gas industry, the DSDP?s drill ship, the Glomar Challenger(同位语，删除), was able to maintain a steady position on the ocean?s surface and drill in very deep water, extracting samples of sediments and rock from the ocean floor.
例5: The desperate plight of the South has eclipsed the fact that (reconstruction had to be undertaken also in North, though less spectacularly).
例6: The technique of direct carving was a break with the nineteenth century in which (the making of a clay model was considered the creative act) and (the work was then turned over to studio assistant to be cast in plaster or bronze or carved in marble).
例7: Anyone (who has handle a fossilized bone) knows that (it is usually not exactly like its modern counterpart), the most obvious difference being that( it is often much heavier) 独立主格结构.
例8: The impressive gain in output 〔stemmed primarily from the way in which (workers made goods since 1790?s)〕, North American enterpreneurs----even without the technological improvement----had broadended the scope of the outwork system (that made manufacturing more efficient by distributing materials to succession
of workers (who each performed a single step of the production process))
例9: The fact that (artisanss, (who were locked on as mechanics or skilled workers in the eighteenth century), (are frequently considered artists today) is directly attributable to the Arts and Crafts Movement of the nineteenth century)
例10: A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of Boston, William Bbyrd of Virginian, and the Aliens abd Hamiltons of Philadelphia (同位语)introduced European art traditions to those colonists〔privileged to visit their galleries, especially aspiring artists〕and established in their respective communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions 〔devoted to its encouragement〕.
(2) 倒装句的阅读方法
1) 部分倒装处理方法: 把提前的助动词/be动词/情态动词去掉或还原,并按顺序理解.
2) 完全倒装的处理方法
构成主语的成分:
名词
代词
The +形容词
不定式
主语从句
动名词
阅读和写作的关系：
为写作提供原始模仿素材，并且是抽象结构．
Basic to any understanding of the disadvantages of
building a large factory near a community is
_________.
例1: Herein (adv) lay(宾语) the beginning of what ultimately(最终) turned from ignorance(无知) to denial of the value of nutrition therapies in medicine(主语).
例2: Surrounding the column are three sepals and three petals(主语), sometimes easily recognizable as such, often distorted into gorgeous, weird, but always functional shapes.
例3:With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and
the economic boom( that followed it)独立主格,young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression. 没有倒装
例4: Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20years after the Second World War(宾语) is the country’s impressive population growth(主语).
句子结构: adj + prep +B+ be + A = A + be +adj +prep +B
例5: Among the species of seabirds (that use the windswept cliff of the Atlantic coast of Canada in the summer to mate, lay eggs, and rear their young) are common murres, Atlantic puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and northern gannets(主语).
句子结构: Among A + be + B = B是A的一部分
例6: Implicit in it is an aesthetic principle as well: (that the medium has certain qualities of beauty and expressiveness with which (sculptors must bring their own aesthetic sensibilities into harmony)).
例7: Most important perhaps, was that (they had all maintained with a certain fidelity(状语) a manner of technique and composition consistent with those of America?s first popular landscapes artist, Thomas Cole, (who built a career painting the Catskill Mountain scenery 〔bording the Hudson River〔)).
句型结构: S + Vt + prep + n1 (介词短语)+ n2, Vt的宾语实际上是
n2.
例8: With the turn-of-century Crafts movement and the discovery of nontraditional sources of inspiration(独立主格), such as wooden African figures and masks, there arose a new urge for hands-on, personal execution of art and an interaction with the medium(主语).
例9: Accustomed though we are to(倒装) speaking of the films made before 1927 as …slient?, the film has never been seen, in the full sense of the word, silent.
句型结构: adj + though + S + be + prep + n = though + S +be + adj + prep + n, 仅发生在让步状语从句中.
例10: Coincident with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats has been a growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity, the number of species in a particular ecosystem(同位语), to the health of the Earth and human well-being(主语).
句型结构: the importance of A to B = A 对B 的重要性
例11: Matching the influx of foreign immigrants into the larger cities of the United States during the late nineteenth century was a domestic migration(主语), from town and farm to city, within the United States. 例12: Indeed, had it not been for the superb preservation of these fossils(虚拟条件句if it had not been) , they might well have been classified as dinosaurs.
(4) 强调句的阅读方法
构成：It + be + 强调成分＋that/ who+ 其他成分
注意：把强调结构去掉句子仍然完整＼正确的就是强调句．强调句不强调形容词和代词．
例1: It was just a decade before this (强调句)that many drug companies had found their vitamin sales skyrocketing and were quick to supply practicing physicians with generous samples of vitamins and literature extolling the virtue of supplementation for a vatiety of health-related conditions.
例2: It was she, a Baltimore printer, (强调句)who published the first office copies of the Declaraton, the first copie (that included the names of its singers and therefore heralded the support of all thirteen colonies).
例3: It was in the cities(强调句)that the elements (that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared-----the use of money and commercial paper in place of barter, open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder, and the appearance of factories using coal or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools).
2. 泛读----快速阅读与有效阅读
(1) 阅读中的详略结合-----SKIMMING
1) 需要详细阅读的内容
结构主体的内容
非举例性质的概括描述
题目映射回原文的内容
2) 可以快速浏览的内容
大量的数据堆砌
明显的举例: 为何而举,举例主体,结束位置
对比\类比读一半
让步\转折读一半(转折以后的那一半)
(2) 理解单位扩大和阅读中逻辑的构建----模糊理解理论
1) 阅读中的恶习----指读\声读\回读\视角高度过低\
二次阅读
2) 理解单位和阅读逻辑
加大理解单位,变单词为意群组合----焦点训练法
?可以合并为意群的成分:
?副词
?介词短语
?分词短语
?非谓语的不定式
?主语和谓语或谓语和宾语
?固定搭配
例: Generally, in order to be preserved in the fossil record, organisms must process hard body parts such as shells or bones. Soft, fleshy structures are quickly destroyed by predators or decayed by bacteria.
Even hard parts left on the surface for certain length of time will be destroyed. Therefore, organisms must be buried rapidly to escape destruction by elements and to be protected against agents of weathering and erosion. Marine organisms thus are better candidates for fossilization than those living on the land because the ocean is typically the site of sedimentation, whereas the land is largely the site of erosion.
构建阅读逻辑, 变翻译为整体理解----强调一遍阅读法
文章的类型和题材
1) 文章类型: :参见OG第19页
顺承式: 时间及时间发展线索.(线型结构)
分类式: 分类方式及类别特征. (树型结构)
问题解决式\现象解释式: 解决方案\解释及最终结论.(伞型结构) 2) 题材分类
自然科学
a. 生物学
?植物学: 植物的分类和特征
?动物学: 动物的分类和行为.鸟类\群体昆虫\海洋生物
?微生物学: 真菌(蘑菇\真菌的顽固)
b. 地理\地质学
?地形\地貌特征: 成因\分布\气候\生态\影响
?地质事件: 成因或原理\过程\影响
c. 天文学
?具体的星体特征: 基本特征(形状\距离\轨道\旋转\温度\质量);
大气层(氢气\氦气\氨气\甲烷); 表面特征; 水和生命形式; 人
的探索
?天文学事件: 成因\过程\影响
d. 考古学
?古生物: 恐龙(灭绝), 鸟类( 进化史pterosau r→
archaeopteryx→modern birds)
?古代遗址\遗迹: 中国的古代遗迹
e.气象学
?灾害性天气: 成因\过程\危害\预防
?天气预报: 卫星\计算机技术
f. 新技术和新事物
?发展史
?特征及应用
人文科学
a. 美国历史
?土人: 生活\宗教\艺术
?都市化过程: 人口增长\城市扩张\交通发展\经济繁荣
b. 历史学和人类学
?原始人生活变迁: 游牧到定居(农业)
?古代文明
c. 文学
?流派: 产生\思想\代表
?作家: 生平\作品
d. 绘画和雕塑
?类型:城市艺术
?画家
e. 音乐
?类型: country, ragtime…
?乐器
f.心理学: 人类情感分析
三. 新托福阅读题型解析
1. 词汇题(Vocabulary Question)
(1) 词汇题简介和提问方式: 参见OG第25页
(2) 词汇题的解答方法
认识：直接解题，沾边就对。
不认识：推断：从词的本身
上下文：因果＼对比＼解释＼定义＼同位代入验证
不认识的不要乱猜
2. 指代题(Reference Question)
(1) 指代题简介和提问方式: 参见OG第26~27页
(2) 指代题的解答方法
a. 从句的主语指代主语的主宾语(使用属性判断,不用含义)
b. 关系代词指代先行词(插入结构不影响指代关系)
c. 重复概念指代: Tom and his cat(就近原则)
d. some of others
some + n + of + n, others指名词
some + v, some others共指之前概念
名词:
a. 优先选择题干的上下意词
a is a kind of A, A是a的上意词
b. 若上下意词不唯一则当作代词指代处理
注意:
a.被指代对象往往在代词之前出现
b. 从句开头往后找答案
c. 代词和被指代对象的数性和性质必须一致
d. 指代的传递现象