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语言学期末考试重点

语言学期末考试重点
语言学期末考试重点

What is language?

“ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”

System: linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.

Arbitrary: e.g. book

Symbolic: people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.

V ocal: language is primarily vocal, rather than written

Human-specific:

Design features of language

语言的本质特征Arbitrariness (任意性)

Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:

The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪”in Chinese. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like the sounds they describe

Duality (二重性)Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words, such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level.

Productivity or Creativity (创造性)Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.

Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.

Displacement(移位性)One can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.

Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.

e.g. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.

Cultural transmission(文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.

e.g. a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.

e.g. a Chinese baby born and brought up in London

an English child brought up in Beijing

Interchangeability(互换性)It refers to that man can both produce and receive message.

One can be a speaker or a hearer

Specialization (专门性)It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication

Function of language(语言功能)

Phatic function/communion(寒暄功能)Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.

e.g. Greetings, farewell and comments

Directive function (指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.

e.g. open the door

Informative function(信息功能)Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out.

Declarative sentences:

e.g. I saw her yesterday on the street

Interrogative function (疑问功能)Language is used to ask for information from others.

All questions expecting replies serve this function.

e.g. what’s your name?

what time is it now?

Expressive function(表达功能)Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings.

e.g. Oh, my God!

Evocative function(唤起功能)

Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.

e.g. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda

Perfomative function(施为功能)Language is used to do things or to perform acts.

e.g. I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Descriptive and prescriptive grammars (描写式和规定式语法)

Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.

As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.

e.g. A: who is that?

B: It’s me. / It’s I.

Synchronic and diachronic linguistics (共时与历时语言学)

When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.

Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

Langue and parole (语言与言语

F. de Saussure make an important distinction between langue and parole.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.

Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.

Competence and performance (语言能力和语言应用)

According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.

Chapter 2The Sounds of Language

Phonetics

The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics

Classification of English speech sounds

Speech sounds of all languages are broadly classified into vowels and consonants.

V owels: there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.

Consonants: we are making it difficult or impossible for the air to pass through the mouth.

Consonants

English consonant can be classified according to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.

The manner of articulation: it refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).

The place of articulation: it refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).

The manner of articulation

Plosives /stops (爆破音)——/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/

Fricatives (摩擦音)——/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /e/, /∫/, /?/, /h/

Affricates (破擦音) —— /t∫/, /d?/

Liquids (流音)——/l/, /r/

Nasals (鼻音)——/m/, /n/, /?/

Glides (median approximants) (滑音)——/j/, /w/

The place of articulation

Bilabials (双唇音): /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/Labiodentals (唇齿音): /f/, /v/

Dentals (齿音): /θ/, /e/

Alveolars(齿龈音):/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/

Palatals (上颚音): /j/, /∫/, /?/, /d?/, /t∫/

Velars (软腭音): /k/, /g/, /?/

Glottal (声门音,喉音): /h/

Phonology (音系学/音位学)

Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

Minimal pairs 最小对立体

Minimal pairs: are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound (occurs in the same place).

Minimal sets 最小对立体集

Minimal sets: when a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.

On the vowel phonemes

e.g.feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot

On the consonants

e.g.big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig

Suprasegmentals(超语段音位学)

Suprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in english include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation.STRESS TONE INTONATION。Stress

Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.

A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion.

Verb Noun

CONvictconVICT

INsult inSULT

PROduce proDUCE

REbel reBEL

Intonation (语调)

Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.

The falling tone:what is said is a straight-forward, matter of fact statement.

the rising tone: often makes a question of what is said

the fall-rise tone: there is an implied message in what is said

the rise-fall tone.

Chapter 3Morphology

Morphology (词法学)

Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes. Morphemes :is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.

One morpheme: desire

Two morphemes: desire + able

Three morphemes: desire + able + ity

Four morphemes: un + desire + able + ity

Types of morphemes

Free vs. Bound morphemes:

Free morphemes (自由词素): those which can stand alone as words, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves.

eg boy, girl, table, in, the

Free morphemes:

Lexical Morphemes

The set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives.e.g. book, desk, house, love, look, long, happy.

Functional morphemes.e.g. and, but, because, if, when, on, above, in, it, the, that Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes (粘附词素): those which cannot normally stand alone, that is, those which must appear with at least another morpheme.

eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.

Inflectional Morphemes (屈折词缀)& Derivational Morphemes (派生词缀)Inflectional Morphemes/ affix, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word, e.g. singular or plural, past tense or present tense, possessive or comparative form.

All inflectional morphemes listed here are suffixes:

Noun + -’s, -s (worker’s, workers)

Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en (works, working, worked, taken)

Adjective + -er, -est (later, latest)

Root, Affix and Stem

Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

eg internationalism

inter-, nation, al and –ism

nation root

Root free morphemes

eg slow in slowly

Root bound morphemes, e.g. re-ceive, per-ceive, de-ceive

Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into

prefix (dis-, un-) and

suffix (-en, -ity).

Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added.

e.g.friends; friendships.

The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.

Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which can add an affix.

Types of word formation Inflection

Clipping: the process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called Clipping. Cllipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a short form, often in casual speech.

Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), (omni)bus, exam(ination), lab(oratory), piano(forte) Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (air)plane, (heli)copter, (tele)phone, (earth)quake

Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)

Blending:a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms.

transfer+resistor>transistor

smoke+fog>smog

motorist+hotel>motel

breakfast+lunch>brunch

modulator+demodulator>modem

dance+exercise>dancercise

advertisement+editorial>advertorial

education+entertainment>edutainment

information+commercial>infomercial

Chapter 4Syntax

Syntax:Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

Immediate Constituent Analysis

(IC Analysis) 直接成份分析法

Binary division / cutting

二元切分

Ultimate constituents

最终成份

S

NP VP

Art N V NP

Art N

A man bought a car

Word-level Phrasal

N=noun

Adj=adjective

V=verb

Prep=preposition

Det=determiner

Art = article

Adv=adverb

Conj=conjunction

S

NP VP Art N V

Art N

A man bought a car NP=noun phrase

AP=adjective phrase VP=verb phrase

PP=preposition phrase S=sentence or clause

Transformational- Generative Grammar (转换生成语法)

NOAM CHOMSKY (1928- ), institute professor at MIT. Linguist, philosopher, and political activist.

Chapter 5Semantics

Semantics: is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.

The meaning of words: Lexical semantics

The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, compositional meaning Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semantics

Pragmatics:

The meaning of utterances

Semantic relationship between words

Major sense relations 涵义关系

Homonymy & Homophony (同形/音异义)

Polysemy (多义关系)

Synonymy (同义关系)

Antonymy(反义关系)

Hyponymy (上下义关系)

Meronymy(整体-部分关系)

Polysemy(多义关系)

When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic.

Words of this kind are called polysemic or polysemous words.

e.g. head

the part of the body

the part on top of a glass or beer

the person on top of a company or department

Homonymy & Homophony(同形/音异义)

There are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning. Complete homonyms: (完全同音同形异义,音同拼写同,意义不同) e.g. bank, race

Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling. (同形异音异义,拼写一样,意义不同)

e.g. tear (n.)—tear (v.); lead (n.)—lead(v.)

Homophones: when two words are identical in sound. (同音异形异义,发音一样,形不同,意义不同)

e.g. Rain—reign, night—knight

Antonymy(反义关系)

Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. The oppositeness of meaning is called antonym.

1) Gradable antonym (等级反义词)

There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. E.g. old—young, hot—cold, tall—short.

2)ungradable antonym (非等级反义词)

e.g. alive—dead,male—female,present—absent.

Sense relations between Sentence

X entails Y

X presupposes Y

X is synonymous with Y

X is inconsistent with Y

Implicature

2)X presupposes Y (预设)

X: his bike needs repairing.

Y: he has a bike.

X: Paul has given up smoking.

Y: Paul once smoked.

If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true

Chapter 6Pragmatics

Semantics VS Pragmatics

Semantics:the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).

Pragmatics:the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration).

e.g. Today is Sunday.

Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language. Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences.

Definition of Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of speakers’ intended meaning, or even the ―invisible‖ meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.

The study of language in use.

The study of meaning in context.

The study of speakers’ meaning,

utterance meaning,

& contextual meaning.

Macropragmatics

-speech act theory

Speech act theory

The first major theory in pragmatics, originated with the Oxford philosopher John L. Austin. His book ―how to do Things with Words (1962)‖

It is a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question ―what do we do when using language?‖

Austin classified utterance into two types: constatives and performatives.

Speech act theory

The locutionary act (发话行为): an act of saying something, and act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance).

The illocutionary act (行事行为): the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning; an act performed in saying something. Perlocutionary act(取效行为): the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances. An act performed as a result of saying something.

e.g. It is cold in here

The locutionary act (发话行为): is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold in here.

The illocutionary act (行事行为): can be a request of the hearer to shut the window. Perlocutionary act(取效行为): can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the reque

—(the telephone rings)

---H: that’s the phone 1)

---W: I’m in the bathroom 2)

---H: Okay. 3)

The Cooperative Principle (CP)合作原则

Make your conversational contribution as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.

Four maxims of CP

The maxim of quality (质量准则)

Try to make your contribution one that is true.

1) Do not say what you believe to be false.

2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of quantity (数量准则)

1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of relation (关系准则

Be relevant.

The maxim of manner (方式准则)

Be perspicuous

Avoid obscurity of expression

Avoid ambiguity.

Be brief.

Be orderly.

Chapter8 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学)is the study of language in relation to society.

Chapter 9 psycholinguistics心理语言学is the study of the language –processing mechanisms.

语言学概论期末考试试卷2

语言学概论期末考试试卷2 一、填空题(每空1分,共15分) 1、人与人的口头交际过程是非常复杂的,从通信理论的角度可以将之理解为和的过程。 2、符号包含的两个方面是、。 3、到目前为止,语言学家的研究主要有三种不同的角度,分别是着眼于语言的、、。 4、共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度地、 地研究语法,研究的重点是某一语言在特定范围的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。 5、义素分析的要求一是,二是。 6、文字改革有三种不同的情况:一种是;一种是;还有一种是。 二、单项选择题(每小题1分,共10分) 1、下列国家中不是以单一民族,单一语言为基础建立起来的是() A.瑞士B.法国C.西班牙D.英格兰 2、语言是一种() A.形式和内容相统一的视觉符号系统B.音义结合的听觉符号系统C.用于交际的触觉符号系统D.集视觉、听觉、触觉为一体的符号系统 3、普通语言学从理论上讲是研究() A.个别民族语言的特殊规律B.人类各种语言一般与个别的规律 C.几种民族语言的一般与个别的规律D.汉语普通话的发展规律 4、噪音是() A.振幅固定而有规则的声波B.频率最低、振幅最大的音 C.具有周期性重复的复合波形的音D.不具备整数倍的不规则的音 5、把语法分成词法、句法两个部分,是()提出来的。 A.结构语法学B.形式语法学C.现代语法学D.传统语法学 6、语义的基本特征是() A.概括性B.民族性C.模糊性D.同语言形式的结合 7、词的()是词义的基本的和核心的部分 A.通俗意义B.非通俗意义C.理性意义D.非理性意义 8、“我吃光了盘子里的菜”这句话中,“光”的语义指向是() A.我B.吃C.盘子里的菜D.盘子 9、日文的假名是典型的() A.辅音文字B.音节文字C.表意文字D.意音文字 10、四川人在公开场合讲普通话,在家里讲四川话,这是一种()

语言学纲要期末复习重点整理

1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解,而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 (1)任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的,二者没有必然联系。比如:粤方言中读“人”,读作[zen],新会话读作[ng? n],开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin],台山话读作[ngin],闽南话读作[n^ng],但是表达的意义是一样的。 (2)线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中,语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现,形成延续的线性序列,绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如:“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 (1)组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位(例如音位与音位、词与词等等),按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 (2)聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用(组合能力)的单位符号之间的关系。 (3)不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中,构造符号的音位和意义同

样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 (1)音高:声音的高低,取决于发音体(人的发音体是声带)的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用:构成声调和语调。 (2)音强:声音的强弱,取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言,就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用:构成语调、轻重音。 (3)音长:声音的长短,取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用:构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l](水池)与pull[pul](拖、拉)。 (4)音质:一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关:发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 (1)一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位,是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 (2)确立音位的原则 ①对立原则:凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如:在汉语普通话中:[p][p‘][t][t‘]几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位; ②互补原则:处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用,可以归纳为一个音位。例如:英语中的[p]和[p‘],汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则:但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位,还要考虑语音相似原则:例如:在普通话中,[t]只出现在音节的开头,[?]只出现在音节末

语言学概论期末考试范围

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