化学专业英语(修订版)翻译

01 THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

01 元素和元素周期表

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z.

在一个原子核中的质子数量被称为原子序数，或质子数，Z。在一个电中性原子中的电子数量也等于原子序数，Z。一个原子的总质量被测定是非常接近于原子核中质子和中子的总数。这个总数被称为质量数，A。在一个原子中的中子数量等于A – Z的数量。

The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example:

这个术语(指chemical element)也可以指由相同质子数的原子组成的纯化学物质。对化学家来说，这类原子通过原子数来说明，因为它的性质是决定其化学行为。目前，从Z = 1 到Z = 107的所有原子是知道的；有107种化学元素。每一种化学元素起了一个名字和独特的象征。对于大多数元素都仅仅是一个象征的英文名称缩写形式，由一个或两个字母组成，例如：oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == Mg

氧= =O 氮= = N氖= = Ne 镁= =Mg

Some elements,which have been known for a long time,have symbols based on their Latin names, for example:

很久以来就已经知道一些元素，根据他们的拉丁名字符号命名，例如：

iron==Fe(ferrum) copper==Cu(cuprum) lead==Pb(plumbum)

铁= =铁(铁) 铜= =铜(铜) 铅= =铅(铅)

A complete listing of the elements may be found in Table 1.

一个完整的元素可以在表1中被发现。

Beginning in the late seventeenth century with the work of Robert Boyle, who proposed the presently accepted concept of an element, numerous investigations produced a considerable knowledge of the properties of elements and their compounds1. In 1869, D.Mendeleev and L. Meyer, working independently, proposed the periodic law. In modern form, the law states that the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. In other words, when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, elements having closely similar properties will fall at definite intervals along the list. Thus it is possible to arrange the list of elements in tabular form with elements having similar properties placed in vertical columns2. Such an arrangement is called a periodic.

早在十七世纪末期，罗伯特波义耳就开始了这项工作，他提出了现在公认的元素的概念，大量的研究使我们对元素及其化合物的性质有了相当的了解。在1869年，门捷列夫和迈耶，独立工作，提出了元素周期律。用现代方式，元素周期律阐述了元素的特性原子序数的周期性函数。换句话说，当按原子序数增加的顺序排列元素，具有相近特性的元素将沿着列表以一定的间隔下降。因此，将具有类似性质的元素排成纵列，从而把元素排成表格形式是有可能的。像这样的排列叫元素周期表。

Each horizontal row of elements constitutes a period. It should be noted that the lengths of the periods vary. There is a very short period containing only 2 elements, followed by two short periods

of 8 elements each, and then two long periods of 18 elements each. The next period includes 32 elements, and the last period is apparently incomplete. With this arrangement, elements in the same vertical column have similar characteristics. These columns constitute the chemical families or groups. The groups headed by the members of the two 8-element periods are designated as main group elements, and the members of the other groups are called transition or inner transition elements.

每个水平排的元素构成一个周期。但应该注意的是，周期长度会发生改变。非常短的周期只包含二元素，后面跟着两个8个元素短周期，然后是两个由18个元素组成的长周期。下一个周期包括32个元素，最后一个周期明显是不完整的。按照这样的安排，在同一垂直栏的元素有相似的特点。这些垂直栏构成化学族。两个8个元素的周期组成的元素被认为是主族元素，其他族的元素被称为过渡元素。

In the periodic table, a heavy stepped line divides the elements into metals and nonmetals. Elements to the left of this line (with the exception of hydrogen) are metals, while those to the right are nonmetals. This division is for convenience only; elements bordering the line—the metalloids-have properties characteristic of - both metals and nonmetals. It may be seen that most of the elements, including all the transition and inner transition elements, are metals.

在元素周期表，阶梯线将元素分成金属和非金属元素等。阶梯线左边的元素(除氢)是金属，右边的是非金属元素等。这个分割仅为方便使用；元素分界线上的元素—准金属具有金属和非金属的特性。这可以看出，大部分的元素，包括所有的过渡和内在过渡元素，是金属。

Except for hydrogen, a gas, the elements of group IA make up the alkali metal family. They are very reactive metals, and they are never found in the elemental state in nature. However, their compounds are widespread. All the members of the alkali metal family, form ions having a charge of 1+ only. In contrast, the elements of group IB —copper, silver, and gold—are comparatively inert. They are similar to the alkali metals in that they exist as 1+ ions in many of their compounds. However, as is characteristic of most transition elements, they form ions having other charges as well.

除了氢气，IA由碱金属元素组成。他们是非常活泼的金属，在自然界中，它们从没有以元素态形式出现。然而，他们的化合物是广泛存在的。所有的碱金属离子仅有1+的电荷。相比之下，IB 铜，银和金是惰性的。在他们的许多化合物他们存在1+离子，这与碱金属离子是相似的。然而，像许多过渡元素所具有的特点一样，他们也形成具有其他电荷的离子。

The elements of group IIA are known as the alkaline earth metals. Their characteristic ionic charge is 2+. These metals, particularly the last two members of the group, are almost as reactive as the alkali metals. The group IIB elements—zinc, cadmium, and mercury are less reactive than are those of group II A5, but are more reactive than the neighboring elements of group IB. The characteristic charge on their ions is also 2+.

IIA的元素被称为碱土金属。其特点是离子电荷2+。这些金属，特别是最后两个元素，几乎具有与碱金属一样的反应活性。IIB元素，锌，镉，汞比IIA的元素具有更少的反应活性，但是比相邻的IB的元素有更强的反应活性。IB的元素离子的特征电荷也是2+。

With the exception of boron, group IIIA elements are also fairly reactive metals. Aluminum appears to be inert toward reaction with air, but this behavior stems from the fact that the metal forms a thin, invisible film of aluminum oxide on the surface, which protects the bulk of the metal from further oxidation. The metals of group IIIA form ions of 3+ charge. Group IIIB consists of the metals scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium.

除了硼、IIIA元素也是具有相当强活性金属。在空气中铝似乎惰性的，但这种行为的根源是金属表面形成了一层薄的、不可见的氧化铝膜，这层膜保护大量的金属的进一步氧化。IIIA 金属离子具有3+的电荷。IIIA由金属钪，钇，镧系和锕系元素组成。

Group IVA consists of a nonmetal, carbon, two metalloids, silicon and germanium, and two metals, tin and lead. Each of these elements forms some compounds with formulas which indicate that four

other atoms are present per group IVA atom, as, for example, carbon tetrachloride, CCl4. The group IVB metals —titanium, zirconium, and hafnium —also forms compounds in which each group IVB atom is combined with four other atoms; these compounds are nonelectrolytes when pure.

IVA元素由一个非金属，碳、两个准金属，硅和锗，和两个金属，锡和铅组成。按照配位规则，这些元素的每一种形成一些化学物，这表明每一个IVA原子需要四个其他原子配位，例如，四氯化碳CCl4。IVB金属—钛、锆、和铪—也形成化合物，其中每个IVB原子结合四个其他原子；这些化合物的纯物质是非电解质。

The elements of group V A include three nonmetals —nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic—and two metals —antimony and bismuth. Although compounds with the formulas N2O5, PCl5, and AsCl5 exist, none of them is ionic. These elements do form compounds-nitrides, phosphides, and arsenides —in which ions having charges of minus three occur. The elements of group VB are all metals. These elements form such a variety of different compounds that their characteristics are not easily generalized.

VA元素包括三种非金属--氮、磷、砷，和两种金属锑和铋。尽管物质N2O5，PCl5，AsCl5存在，但是其中没有一个是离子。这些元素能形成化合物—氮化物，磷化物，和砷化物—其中离子带3-价的负电荷。VB的元素都是金属。这些元素形成各种不同的化合物，它们的特性不容易归纳。

With the exception of polonium, the elements of group VIA are typical nonmetals. They are sometimes known, as the, chalcogens, from the Greek word meaning "ash formers". In their binary compounds with metals they exist as ions having a charge of 2-. The elements of group ⅦA are all nonmetals and are known as the halogens. from the Greek term meaning "salt formers. ”They are the most reactive nonmetals and are capable of reacting with practically all the metals and with most nonmetals, including each other.

除了钋的元素，VIA族元素是典型的非金属。他们是众所周知的硫族元素，这来自于希腊字母，词意是“灰的创造者”。在他们与金属离子形成的二元化合物中离子带2-价的电荷。ⅦA 族的元素都是非金属，被称为卤素，来自希腊术语，意即“盐的创造者”。他们是最具有反应活性的非金属，能够与所有的金属和大多数非金属反应，包括互相之间的反应。

The elements of groups ⅥB, ⅦB, and VIIIB are all metals. They form such a wide Variety of compounds that it is not practical at this point to present any examples as being typical of the behavior of the respective groups.

ⅥB，ⅦB，和VIIIB族元素都是金属。它们形成了各种各样的化合物，在这一点上我们甚至不能举出任何能表现各族元素典型变化的例子。

The periodicity of chemical behavior is illustrated by the fact that，excluding the first period, each period begins with a very reactive metal. Successive element along the period show decreasing metallic character, eventually becoming nonmetals, and finally, in group ⅦA, a very reactive nonmetal is found. Each period ends with a member of the noble gas family.

除了第一个周期，化学行为的周期性可以用事实说明，每一个周期以一个非常活泼的金属开始。沿着周期元素显示出了逐渐减少的金属性，最终成为非金属，最后，在ⅦA族，可以发现一个很活泼的非金属元素。每一个周期的结尾是一个稀有气体元素。

02 THE NONMETAL ELEMENTS

02非金属元素

We noted earlier that -nonmetals exhibit properties that are greatly different from those of the metals. As a rule, the nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity (graphitic carbon is an exception) and heat; they are brittle, are often intensely colored, and show an unusually wide range of melting and boiling points. Their molecular structures, usually involving ordinary covalent bonds, vary from the simple

diatomic molecules of H2, Cl2, I2, and N2 to the giant molecules of diamond, silicon and boron.

很早我们就已经注意到非金属表现出了与金属不一样的特性。一般来说，非金属是比较差的电子（石墨碳除外）和热的导体；他们是易碎的，通常具有较强的颜色，并表现出很宽范围的熔点和沸点。他们的分子结构，通常是包括了普通的共价键，从简单的双原子分子的H2，Cl2，I2和N2到钻石、硅和硼的大分子。

The nonmetals that are gases at room temperature are the low-molecular weight diatomic molecules and the noble gases that exert very small intermolecular forces. As the molecular weight increases, we encounter a liquid (Br2) and a solid (I2) whose vapor pressures also indicate small intermolecular forces. Certain properties of a few nonmetals are listed in Table 2.

在室温下是气相的非金属是低分子质量的双原子分子和施加了非常小的分子间作用力的稀有气体。随着分子量的增大，我们遇到了一个液体(Br2)和一个固体(I2)，其蒸气压也表明小的分子间作用力。一些非金属的某些性质列在表2中。

Table 2 Molecular Weights and Melting Points of Certain Nonmetals

Simple diatomic molecules are not formed by the heavier members of Groups V and VI at ordinary conditions. This is in direct contrast to the first members of these groups, N2 and O2. The difference arises because of the lower stability of πbonds formed from p orbitals of the third and higher main energy levels as opposed to the second main energy level2. The larger atomic radii and more dense electron clouds of elements of the third period and higher do not allow good parallel overlap of p orbitals necessary for a strong πbond. This is a general phenomenon —strong πbonds are formed only between elements of the second period. Thus, elemental nitrogen and oxygen form stable molecules with both σand πbonds, but other members of their groups form more stable structures based on σbonds only at ordinary conditions. Note3 that Group VII elements form diatomic molecules, but πbonds are not required for saturation of valence.

通常情况下，V和VI族包括的更重的元素不能形成简单的双原子分子。这与这两个族中所包括的第一种元素是直接相反的，N2和O2。差别的出现是由于与第二主能级相反，第三和更高主能级的p轨道形成的π键稳定性较低。第三和更高周期元素的更大的原子半径和更密的电子云不允许一个强的π键所必需的p轨道很好的平行重叠。这是一个普遍的现象—强的π键仅仅在第二周期的元素之间形成。因此，氮和氧元素形成了具有σ和π键的稳定分子，但是在通常情况下，这两个族的其他元素可以形成仅仅基于σ键的更稳定的结构。需要注意的是第VII族元素形成了双原子分子，但是π键不需要用于价态的饱和。

Sulfur exhibits allotropic forms. Solid sulfur exists in two crystalline forms and in an amorphous form. Rhombic sulfur is obtained by crystallization from a suitable solution, such as CS2, and it melts at 112°C. Monoclinic sulfur is formed by cooling melted sulfur and it melts at 119°C. Both forms of crystalline sulfur melt into S-gamma, which is composed of S8 molecules. The S8 molecules are puckered rings and survive heating to about 160°C. Above 160°C, the S8 rings break open, and some of these fragments combine with each other to form a highly viscous mixture of irregularly shaped coils. At a range of higher temperatures the liquid sulfur becomes so viscous that it will not pour from its container. The color also changes from straw yellow at sulfur's melting point to a deep reddish-brown as it becomes more viscous.

硫具有同素异形体。固态硫存在两种晶形和一种无定形的形式。斜方硫通过在合适的溶液中

结晶化获得，如CS2，在112°C时融化。单斜硫通过冷却融化的硫获得和单斜硫在119°C 时融化。两种形式的晶体硫融化成S-gamma，它由S8分子组成。S8的分子起皱成环和加热到160°C仍然存在。超过160°C，S8环被破坏，其中的一些片段相互结合形成一个高粘度的形状不规则的混合物。在更高的温度范围液态硫变得黏度很高，以致于在容器中不能倒出。随着变得更粘稠，其颜色也从硫熔点时的稻草黄色变成红褐色。

As4 the boiling point of 444 °C is approached, the large-coiled molecules of sulfur are partially degraded and the liquid sulfur decreases in viscosity. If the hot liquid sulfur is quenched by pouring it into cold water, the amorphous form of sulfur is produced. The structure of amorphous sulfur consists of large-coiled helices with eight sulfur atoms to each turn of the helix; the overall nature of amorphous sulfur is described as3 rubbery because it stretches much like ordinary rubber. In a few hours the amorphous sulfur reverts to small rhombic crystals and its rubbery property disappears.

随着接近444°C的沸点，硫的大的螺旋状分子被部分降解和液态硫的黏度降低。如果把热的液态硫倒入到冷却水里骤冷，就会产生无定形硫。无定形硫的结构由具有8个硫原子的大的螺旋线组成；无定形硫的总特性被描述成是有弹性的，因为它可以类似于普通的橡胶伸张。几个小时之内无定形硫恢复成菱形晶体，和它的弹性性质消失。

Sulfur, an important raw material in industrial chemistry, occurs as the free element, as SO2 in volcanic regions, as H2S in mineral waters, and in a variety of sulfide ores such as iron pyrite FeS2, zinc blende ZnS, galena PbS and such, and in common formations of gypsum CaSO4 ?2H2O, anhydrite CaSO4, and barytes BaSO4 ?2H2O. Sulfur, in one form or another, is used in large quantities for making sulfuric acid, fertilizers, insecticides, and paper.

硫在工业化学中是一种重要的原材料，它以单质，在火山区域以SO2，在矿泉水中H2S，和各种硫化物出现，像黄铁矿FeS2，闪锌矿ZnS，方铅矿PbS等等，还有石膏CaSO4?2H2O，硬石膏CaSO4，以及重晶石BaSO4?2H2O等普通形态。硫或以某种方式，用于大量制造硫酸、肥料、杀虫剂、和纸张。

Sulfur in the form of SO2 obtained in the roasting of sulfide ores is recovered and converted to

sulfuric acid, although in previous years much of this SO2 was discarded through exceptionally tall smokestacks. Fortunately, it is now economically favorable to recover these gases, thus greatly reducing this type of atmospheric pollution. A typical roasting reaction involves the change:

2 ZnS +

3 O2—2 ZnO + 2 SO2

在硫化物煅烧中获得的以SO2形式存在的硫被转化成硫酸，尽管在过去几年许多二氧化硫通过高烟囱排放出去。幸运的是，现在回收这些气体的成本是较低的，从而这可以大幅度地减少大气污染。典型的焙烧反应如下：

2 ZnS +

3 O2-2氧化锌+ 2二氧化硫

Phosphorus, below 800℃consists of tetratomic molecules, P4. Its molecular structure provides for a covalence of three, as may be expected from the three unpaired p electrons in its atomic structure, and each atom is attached to three others6. Instead of a strictly orthogonal orientation, with the three bonds 90°to each other, the bond angles are only 60°. This supposedly strained structure is stabilized by the mutual interaction of the four atoms (each atom is bonded to the other three), but it is chemically the most active form of phosphorus. This form of phosphorus, the white modification, is spontaneously combustible in air. When heated to 260°C it changes to red phosphorus, whose structure is obscure. Red phosphorus is stable in air but, like all forms of phosphorus, it should be handled carefully because of its tendency to migrate to the bones when ingested, resulting in serious physiological damage.

在低于800℃时，磷由四原子分子组成，P4。它的分子结构提供了三个共价，可预期三个共价是由该原子结构中三个未成对的p电子形成的，且每个原子都与另外三个相接。不是严格的正交取向，即三个键互成90°，而是键角仅仅是60°。这种可能的收缩结构通过4个原子的相互作用来稳定（每一个原子与其他三个原子成键），但是它是化学上最活跃的磷的形式。这种形式的磷、白磷，在空气中能自发燃烧。当加热到260°C时，它转变成红磷，其结构是不确定的。红色是在空气中是稳定的，但是，就像所有形式的磷，它应该谨慎处理，因为当摄取时，它倾向于迁移到骨头，这会导致严重的生理伤害。

Elemental carbon exists in one of two crystalline structures —diamond and graphite. The diamond structure, based on tetrahedral bonding of hybridized sp3 orbitals, is encountered among Group IV elements. We may expect that as the bond length increases, the hardness of the diamond-type crystal decreases. Although the tetrahedral structure persists among the elements in this group —carbon, silicon, germanium, and gray tin —the interatomic distances increase from 1.54 A for carbon to 2.80 A for gray tin. Consequently, the bond strengths among the four elements range from very strong to quite weak. In fact, gray tin is so soft that it exists in the form of microcrystals or merely as a powder. Typical of the Group IV diamond-type crystalline elements, it is a nonconductor and shows other nonmetallic properties7.

碳元素存在两种晶体结构——金刚石和石墨。基于杂化的sp3轨道四面体成键的金刚石结构遇到第IV族元素。我们可能希望键长增加，金刚石类型的晶体硬度降低。虽然四面体结构的元素存在这个族-碳、硅、锗，和灰锡-原子间的距离由碳的1.54?增加到灰锡的2.80 ?。因此，在这四个元素之间，键的强度由强变弱。事实上，灰锡是非常柔软的，以致于它以微晶或粉末形式存在。碳作为典型的第IV族金刚石型晶体的元素，它是不良导体，且显示其他非金属性质。

10 ALKANES

10 烷烃

Number of Isomers

同分异构体的数量

The compounds now assigned the generic name alkane are also referred to as saturated hydrocarbons and as paraffin hydrocarbons. The word paraffin, from the Latin parum affinis(slight affinity)refers to the inert chemical nature of the substances and is applied also to the wax obtainable from petroleum and consisting of a mixture of higher alkanes.

现在指定属名为烷烃的化合物也被叫做饱和烷烃和链烷烃。石蜡一词,来自拉丁语“parum affinis”(极少亲和性的) ,指的是化学惰性的物质,并也适用于从石油和高级烷烃混合物中的得到的蜡。

Derivation of the formulas of the pentanes (3 isomers), hexanes (5). and heptanes(9) has already demonstrated the sharp rise in diversity with increasing carbon content.

戊烷（3个同分异构体），己烷（5个同分异构体），和庚烷（9个同分异构体）的衍生物已经表明了随着C含量增加，衍生物的数量会大幅度的上升。

Normal Alkanes

正烷烃

Successive members of the series differ in composition by the increment CH2 and form a homologous series. Thus heptane and octane are homologous hydrocarbons; icosane is a higher homolog of methane.

这一系列中接连相邻的成员间组成不同，通过增加CH2形成同系物。因此，庚烷和辛烷是同系碳氢化合物；二十烷是甲烷的一个较高的同系物。

Saturated Unbranched — Chain Compounds and Univalent Radicals

饱和无支链的链状化合物和单价基团

The first four saturated unbranched acyclic hydrocarbons are called methane, ethane, propane and butane. Names of the higher members of this series consist of a numerical term, followed by "-ane" with elision of terminal "a" from the numerical term. Examples of these names are shown in the table below. The generic name of- saturated acyclic hydrocarbons (branched or unbranched) is “alkane.”前四个饱和无支链的非环状碳氢化合物被称为甲烷，乙烷，丙烷和丁烷。这一系列中更高的成员的命名包含一个数字项，紧接着是-ane，其中数字项结尾省略了a。这些名称的例子如下表所示。（含支链或非支链）的饱和无环碳氢化合物通用都被称作“烷烃”。Examples of names: (n = total number of carbon atoms)

实例名称：(n =碳原子的总数)

n n n

1 Methane 甲烷15 Pentadecane 十五烷29 Nonacosane 二十九烷

2 Ethane乙烷16 Hexadecane 十六烷30 Triacontane 三十烷

3 Propane 丙烷17 Heptadecane 十七烷31 Hentriacontane 三十一烷

4 Butane 丁烷18 Octadecane 十八烷32 Dotriacontane 三十二烷

5 Pentane 戊烷19 Nonadecane 十九烷33 Tritriacontane 三十三烷

6 Hexane 己烷20 Icosane 二十烷40 Tetracontane 四十烷

7 Heptane 庚烷21 Henicosane 二十一烷50 Pentacontane 五十烷

8 Octane 辛烷22 Docosane 二十二烷60 Hexacontane 六十烷

9 Nonane 壬烷23 Tricosane 二十三烷70 Heptacontane 七十烷

10 Decane 癸烷24 Tetracosane 二十四烷80 Octacontane 八十烷

11 Undecane 十一烷25 Pentacosane 二十五烷90 Nonacontane 九十烷

12 Dodecane 十二烷26 Hexacosane 二十六烷100 Hectane 一百烷

13 Tridecane 十三烷27 Heptacosane 二十七烷132 Dotriacontahectane 132烷

14 Tetradecane 十四烷28 Octacosane 二十八烷

Saturated branched acyclic hydrocarbon is named by prefixing the designations of the side chains to the name of the longest chain which is numbered from one end to the other by Arabic numerals, the direction being so chosen as to give the lowest numbers possible to the side chains. When series of locants containing the same number of terms are compared term by term, that series is "lowest" which contains the lowest number on the occasion of the first difference1. This principle is applied irrespective of the nature of the substituents.

饱和的支链无环烃的命名是把侧链名称作为最长链名称的前缀，最长链用阿拉伯数字从一端到另一端进行编号，方向选择是为了让侧链的编号尽可能低。当位次含有相同编号的系列被逐级比较时，直到出现第一个不同，最低编号的那个体系就是最低的。这一原则适用与不考虑取代基的种类。

The presence of identical unsubstituted radicals is indicated by the appropriate multiplying prefix di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- , hexa- , hepta-, octa- , nona-, deca , etc.

存在相同未取代基团通过适当增加前缀二，三，四，五，六，七，，八，九，十等来表示。

Univalent radicals derived from saturated acyclic hydrocarbons by removal of hydrogen from a terminal carbon atom are named by replacing the ending " — ane" of the name of the hydrocarbon by "—yl". The carbon atom with the free valence is numbered as 1. As a class, these radicals are called normal, or unbranched chain, alkyls.

单价基团是从饱和无环烃中去掉端基碳原子上的氢得来，用－yl代替烷烃名字结尾中的－ane来命名。具有自由价的碳原子编号为1 。作为一类，这些基团被称为正烷基或非支链烷基。

Stability.— Alkanes are relatively inert, chemically, since they are indifferent to reagents which react readily with alkenes or with alkynes. n-Hexane, for example, is not attacked by concentrated sulfuric acid, boiling nitric acid, molten "sodium hydroxide, potassium permanganate, or chromic acid; with the exception of sodium hydroxide, these reagents all attack alkenes at room temperature. The few reactions of which alkanes are capable require a high temperature or special catalysis.

稳定性。烷烃在化学上是相对惰性的，因为他们和与烯烃或炔烃反应的试剂不反应。例如，正己烷不与浓硫酸，沸腾的硝酸，熔融的氢氧化钠，高锰酸钾，或铬酸;除氢氧化钠，这些试剂都与烯烃在室温下反应。少数烷烃可以参加的反应要求较高的温度或特殊催化。

Halogenation. —If a test tube containing n-hexane is put in a dark place and treated with a drop of bromine, the original color will remain undiminished in intensity for days. If the solution is exposed to sunlight, the color fades in a few minutes. and breathing across the mouth of the tube produces a cloud of condensate revealing hydrogen bromide as one reaction product. The reaction is a photochemical substitution:

卤化：如果把一个装有正己烷的试管放在黑暗的地方加一滴溴，原来的颜色将在强度上维持不退色好几天。如果溶液暴露在阳光下，颜色几分钟就消失了。试管口产生冷凝物，表明生成了HBr。这个反应光是化学取代反应：

Chlorination of alkanes is more general and more useful than bromination and can be effected not only photochemically but also by other methods.

烷烃的氯化比烷烃的溴化更普遍和更有用，而且不仅可以通过光化学而且还可以通过其他方法实现。

Light initiates chlorination of an alkane by converting chlorine molecules into chlorine atoms by a process of hemolysis, in which a covalent bond is severed and one electron is retained by each of the

atoms forming the bond: Cl:Cl —→Cl ? + C1? . A chlorine atom has an odd, or unpaired electron and is a free radical. Because of the tendency of atoms to attain their normal valence shells, any free radical is a highly reactive species. Photochemical chlorination proceeds through a succession of free radicals; it is a free radical chain reaction. The chain initiating step (1 ), hemolytic fission of chlorine molecules, produces chlorine free radicals; in chain propagating steps, a chlorine radical attacks a molecule of alkane to produce hydrogen chloride and an alkyl radical (2), which in turn attacks a chlorine molecule to produce a chloroalkane and a chlorine radical (3).

光引发烷烃的氯化通过均裂的形式将氯分子转化为氯原子。其中的共价键断了，每个原来形成键的原子分别保留一个电子。一个氯原子有一个奇数的，或者未成对电子成为一个游离基。由于原子倾向得到正常的价电子，任何游离基都是高活性的物种。光化学氯化通过游离基的传导实现，它是游离基的链反应。链引发步骤（1 ），氯分子的均裂，产生了氯游离基;在链传播步骤，一个氯游离基攻击烷烃分子产生氯化氢和烷基游离基（2 ），而他又反过来攻击氯分子产生氯代烷烃和氯游离基（3 ）。

Since chlorine-radicals required in step (2) are regenerated in step (3), the two reactions together constitute a chain which, if both reactions proceeded with perfect efficiency, would be self-propagating without further requirement of light energy, The efficiency. however. is not perfect, for chlorine radicals can recombine (4), combine with alkyl radicals ( 5), or dissipate energy by collision with the flask wails. Hence continued radiation is required to maintain an adequate supply of initiating radicals. The chain initiating step requires input of light energy amounting to + 242.8kJ/mole. Step (2), however, is exothermic, since the energy required to break the C — H bond is less than the bond energy of H — Cl. The second chain propagating step (3) is likewise exothermic, and indeed chlorination of an alkane can proceed explosively.

由于在步骤（2 ）中需要的氯游离基在步骤（3 ）中再生了，这两个反应共同构成链，如果两个反应都有较高的效率，反应将是自延续的，不再需要进一步的光能。然而，效率并不非常好，氯游离基可以重组（4 ），并结合烷基（5），或通过与瓶壁碰撞来消耗能量。因此，需要继续辐射来维持提供充足的自由基。链引发步骤需要投入光能达+ 242.8kJ/mole 步骤（2 ）然而，是放热的，因为所需的打破C - H键的能量少于H — Cl键的能量。第二个链传递步骤（3 ）同样是放热，实际上烷烃的氯化可以爆炸式的发生。

Cracking.—Heated to temperatures in the range 500 ~ 700°, higher alkanes undergo pyrolytic rupture or cracking to mixtures of smaller molecules, some saturated and some unsaturated. Unsaturated hydrocarbons produced by selective cracking of specific petroleum fractions are useful in chemical synthesis. Cracking ruptures carbon —carbon rather than carbon —hydrogen bonds because the energy required to break the C —C bond is 247kJ/mol, whereas the C — H bond energy is 364kJ/mol.

裂解：加热温度在500 ?700 ℃范围内，高烷烃进行热解或裂解成为小分子的混合物，包括一些饱和不饱和的。通过选择性裂解特殊石油馏分得到的不饱和烃在化学合成上是非常有用的。裂解断裂的碳-碳键而不是碳氢键，因为打破C - C原子键所需的能量是247kJ/摩尔，而打破C - H键的能量是364kJ/mol。

Oxidation.—The reaction of hydrocarbons with oxygen with the output of energy is the basis for use of gasoline as fuel in internal combustion engines. The energy release on burning a given hydrocarbon is expressed as the heat of combustion in terms of kJ/mole.

氧化。碳氢化合物与氧反应放出能量是使用汽油作为内燃机燃料的基础。燃烧某一特定的碳氢化合物所释放的能量用燃烧热来表示，单位是千焦耳/摩尔。

Incomplete combustion of gaseous hydrocarbons is important in the manufacture of carbon blacks, particularly lampblack, a pigment for ink, and channel black, used as a filler in rubber compounding. Natural gas is used because of its cheapness and availability; the yield of black varies with the type of gas and the manufacturing process but usually is in the range of 2~6% of the theoretical amount.

气态烃的不完全燃烧在工业上生产炭黑上很重要，尤其是灯黑，一种墨水颜料，和槽法炭黑，用作橡胶配方的填料。天然气的使用，因为其廉价和可实用性;黑的产率根据气体种类的不同以及制造工艺的不同而不同，但通常是理论数额的2 ?6 ％。

Partial air oxidation of a more limited extent is a means for production of specific oxygenated substances. Controlled air oxidation of high-boiling mineral oils and waxes from petroleum affords mixtures of higher carboxylic acids similar to those derived from fats and suitable for use in making

soaps.

空气部分氧化到一定限度是生产特殊氧化物制的一种手段，高沸点矿物油和石油中的蜡的可控空气氧化得到了类似于来自脂肪的高级羧酸混合物，适合用于制作肥皂。

24 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

24 容量分析

General principles

一般原则

Chemical analyses can be made by determining how much of a solution of known concentration is needed to react fully with an unknown test sample1. The method is generally referred to as volumetric analysis and consists of titrating the unknown solution with the one2 of known concentration (a standard solution). By titration, you can determine exactly how much of a reagent is required to bring about complete reaction of the test solution. Usually, completion of the reaction is indicated by a sudden, visible change in the reaction system that coincides with the stoichiometric relationship between moles or equivalents of-the reagent solution and the reactant in the test solution, A drop or two of an appropriate indicator solution produces a color change at the point where the reaction is complete-referred to as the endpoint.

化学分析是用来确定要用多少已知浓度的溶液与未知试样完全反应。这种方法就是通常所说的容量分析，它用一种已知溶液（标准溶液）标定未知溶液。通过滴定，你能精确的知道需要多少试剂才能导致（使）待测溶液完全反应。通常，反应的完成是通过在反应体系中的突然的可见的变化来表明的，而这种突变和试剂溶液与待测溶液中的反应物的摩尔或当量的化学计量关系一致，一两滴适当的指示剂溶液在反应完成，也就是反应终点时产生一种颜色的变化。

Molarity is the number of moles (gram-molecular weights)of substance per liter of solution. The mole weight of sulfuric acid is 98.08 g, and therefore, 1 mole of H2SO4 contains 98.08 g. If 49.04 g are diluted to 1 liter then the concentration is 0.49 or 0.5M. In the case of hydrochloric acid, HCl, a 1 M

solution is prepared by taking 36.465 g of HC1 and diluting to 1 liter. The procedure is the same for bases.

摩尔浓度是每升溶液中物质的摩尔（克分子量）数。硫酸的分子量是98.08g，因此，1摩尔硫酸含98.08g.如果49.04g被稀释至1升，浓度就变为0.49或0.5M。如果是盐酸，加入36.465g 的HCl稀释到1升可制成1M的溶液。这个手段同样适用于碱。

Normality is the number of equivalent weights of substance per liter of solution. The equivalent weight of an acid is the weight of that acid capable of furnishing 1 mole of protons (H+), and the equivalent weight of a base is the weight of base capable of receiving 1 mole of protons. The equivalent weight of H2SO4 is 98.08g/2 or 49.04 g. Therefore, a normal solution (N) of H2SO4 contains 49.04g per liter.

当量浓度是每升溶液的物质的当量。酸的当量是指能够提供1摩尔H+的酸的量，碱的当量是指能够获得1摩尔H+的碱的量。硫酸的当量是98.08g/2或者49.04g。因此，标准的硫酸溶液每升含49.04g.

The normality of an acid or base of unknown concentration may be determined by titration. The advantage of using normality rather than molarity is that equal volumes of solutions of equal normalities have identical capacities for neutralization, because they contain the same number of equivalent weights。

未知浓度的酸或碱的当量浓度可以通过滴定来确定。用当量浓度而不是摩尔浓度的优势在于等体积的等当量浓度的溶液有相同的中和能力，因为它们包含相同的当量数。

In a titration, we compare equivalent weights of acid and base. The number of equivalents of acid is equal to the product of the volume of the acid solution and its normality:

在滴定中，我们比较酸和碱的当量。酸的当量等于酸溶液的体积和它的当量浓度的乘积。V a× N a = equivalents of acid

V a × N a = 酸的当量

The number of equivalents of base is the product of the volume of the base solution and its normality:

碱的当量等于碱溶液的体积和它的当量浓度的乘积。

V b× N b = equivalents of base

V b× N b = 碱的当量

That's true because:

(volume)(normality) = (liters)(equivalents/liter) = equivalents

这是正确的，因为

体积×当量浓度=升×（当量/升）=当量

Neutralization has taken place when the number of equivalents of acid is equal to the number of equivalents of base:

当酸的当量等于碱的当量时中和反应就发生了

Va × Na = Vb × Nb

Procedure

程序

Care must be exercised throughout the titration procedure3. The burette should be thoroughly cleaned with soap and water, rinsed with tap water, and finally, rinsed with distilled water. Just before use, the burette should be rinsed with two 5-ml portions of the solution to be used in the burette. This is done by holding the burette in a semi-horizontal position and rolling the solution around the entire inner surface. Allow the final rinsing to drain through the tip.

整个滴定过程一定要小心。滴定管一定要用肥皂和水完全清洗干净，再用自来水，最后用蒸馏水润洗。在用之前，滴定管用两份5毫升的要在滴定管中用的溶液清洗。在半水平方向握住滴定管，绕着滴定管的内部表面旋转溶液。让剩下的溶液从滴定管末端流出。

Fill the burette to a point above the top marking and allow the solution to run out until the bottom of the meniscus is just at the top marking of the burette. The burette tip must be completely filled to deliver the volume measured.

填充滴定管在最大刻度以上，允许溶液流出直到弯液面的底端正好在滴定管的最上端刻度。

化学专业英语(修订版)翻译

01 THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01 元素和元素周期表 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 质子的数量在一个原子的核被称为原子序数,或质子数、周淑金、电子的数量在一个电中性原子也等于原子序数松山机场的总质量的原子做出很近的总数的质子和中子在它的核心。这个总数被称为大量胡逸舟、中子的数量在一个原子,中子数,给出了a - z的数量。 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. T o the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example: 这个术语是指元素,一个纯物质与原子组成一个单一的善良。在药房“客气”原子的原子数来确定它,因为它的性质是决定其化学行为。目前所有原子和Z = 1 a到Z = 107是知道的;有107种化学元素。每一种化学元素起了一个名字和独特的象征。对于大多数元素都仅仅是一个象征的英文名称缩写形式,一个或两个字母组成,例如: oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == Mg

化学专业英语翻译1

01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数，或质子数，卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z，总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数，这个数的原子中的中子，中子数，给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译 完整版

Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助

化学化工专业英语(课本内容)

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物还要加前缀，如O22-:peroxideO2-:superoxide 举例：NaF:sodiumfluoride AlCl3:aluminiumchloride Mg2N3:magnesiumnitride Ag2S：silversulfide CaC2:calciumcarbide Fe(OH)2：iron(II)hydroxide 有些物质常用俗称，如NOnitricoxideN2Onitrousoxide ２．２非金属氢化物 除了水和氨气使用俗称water，ammonia以外，其它的非金属氢化物都用系统名称，命名规则根据化学式的写法不同而有所不同。对于卤族和氧族氢化物，Ｈ在化学式中写在前面，因此将其看成另一元素的二元化合物。 举例：HFhydrogenfluorideHClhydrogenchloride HBrhydrogenbromideHIhydrogeniodide CH4 H 高某酸 举例： H HPO3 正盐：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称。 如FeSO4iron(II)sulfateKMnO4potassiumpermanganate 酸式盐：同正盐的读法，酸根中的Ｈ读做hydrogen，氢原子的个数用前缀表示。 如NaHCO3:sodiumhydrogencarbonate或sodiumbicarbonate NaH2PO4:sodiumdihydrogenphosphate 复盐：同正盐的读法，并且阳离子按英文名称的第一个字母顺序读。 如KNaCO3:potassiumsodiumcarbonate NaNH4HPO4:ammoniumsodiumhydrogenphosphate 水合盐：结晶水读做water或hydrate 如AlCl3.6H2O:aluminumchloride6-water或aluminumchloridehexahydrate AlK(SO4)212H2Oaluminiumpotassiumsulphate12-water

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译

Unit1化学工业的研究和开发 One of the main发达国家化学工业飞速发展的一个重要原因就是它在研究和开发方面的投入commitmen t和投资investmen t。通常是销售收入的5%，而研究密集型分支如制药，投入则加倍。要强调这里我们所提出的百分数不是指利润而是指销售收入，也就是说全部回收的钱，其中包括要付出原材料费，企业管理费，员工工资等等。过去这笔巨大的投资支付得很好，使得许多有用的和有价值的产品被投放市场，包括一些合成高聚物如尼龙和聚脂，药品和杀虫剂。尽管近年来进入市场的新产品大为减少，而且在衰退时期研究部门通常是最先被裁减的部门，在研究和开发方面的投资仍然保持在较高的水平。 化学工业technology industry是高技术工业，它需要利用电子学和工程学的最新成果。计算机被广泛应用，从化工厂的自动控制a utomatic control，到新化合物结构的分子模拟，再到实验室分析仪器的控制。 Individual manufacturing一个制造厂的生产量很不一样，精细化工领域每年只有几吨，而巨型企业如化肥厂和石油化工厂有可能高达500,000吨。后者需要巨大的资金投入，因为一个这样规模的工厂要花费2亿5千万美元，再加上自动控制设备的普遍应用，就不难解释为什么化工厂是资金密集型企业而不是劳动力密集型企业。 The major大部分化学公司是真正的跨国公司multinational，他们在世界上的许多国家进行销售和开发市场，他们在许多国家都有制造厂。这种国际间的合作理念，或全球一体化，是化学工业中发展的趋势。大公司通过在别的国家建造制造厂或者是收购已有的工厂进行扩张。 Unit 2工业研究和开发的类型 The applied通常在生产中完成的实用型的或有目的性的研究和开发可以分为好几类，我们对此加以简述。它们是：（1）产品开发；（2）工艺开发；（3）工艺改进；（4）应用开发；每一类下还有许多分支。我们对每一类举一个典型的例子来加以说明。在化学工业的不同部门内每类的工作重点有很大的不同。 (1)产品开发。product development产品开发不仅包括一种新药的发明和生产，还包括，比如说，给一种汽车发动机提供更长时效的抗氧化添加剂。这种开发的产品已经使（发动机）的服务期限在最近的十年中从3000英里提高到6000、9000现在已提高到12000英里。请注意，大部分的买家所需要的是化工产品能创造出来的效果，亦即某种特殊的用途。，或称聚四氟乙烯（）被购买是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘，易于清洗。（2）工艺开发process development。工艺开发不仅包括为一种全新的产品设计一套制造工艺，还包括为现有的产品设计新的工艺或方案。而要进行后者时可能源于下面的一个或几个原因：新技术的利用、原材料的获得或价格发生了变化。氯乙烯单聚物的制造就是这样的一个例子。它的制造方法随着经济、技术和原材料的变化改变了好几次。另一个刺激因素是需求的显著增加。因而销售量对生产流程的经济效益有很大影响。早期的制造就为此提供了一个很好的例子。 The ability of能预防战争中因伤口感染引发的败血症，因而在第二次世界大战（1939-1945）中，pencillin的需求量非常大，需要大量生产。而在那时，只能用在瓶装牛奶表面发酵的方法小量的生产。英国和美国投入了巨大的人力物力联合进行研制和开发，对生产流程做出了两个重大的改进。首先用一个不同的菌株—黄霉菌代替普通的青霉，它的产量要比后者高得多。第二个重大的流程开发是引进了深层发酵过程。只要在培养液中持续通入大量纯化空气，发酵就能在所有部位进行。这使生产能力大大地增加，达到现代容量超过5000升的不锈钢发酵器。而在第一次世界大战中，死于伤口感染的士兵比直接死于战场上的人还要多。注意到这一点不能不让我们心存感激。 Process development for a new product对一个新产品进行开发要考虑产品生产的规模、产生的副产品以及分离/回收，产品所要求的纯度。在开发阶段利用中试车间（最大容量可达100升）获得的数据设计实际的制造厂是非常宝贵的，例如石油化工或氨的生产。要先建立一个中试车间，运转并测试流程以获得更多的数据。他们需要测试产品的性质，如杀虫剂，或进行消费评估，如一种新的聚合物。 Note that by-products注意，副产品对于化学过程的经济效益也有很大的影响。酚的生产就是一个有代表性的例子。早期的方法，苯磺酸方法，由于它的副产品亚硫酸钠需求枯竭而变的过时。亚硫酸钠需回收和废置成为生产过程附加的费用，增加了生产酚的成本。相反，异丙基苯方法，在经济效益方面优于所有其他方法就在于市场对于它的副产品丙酮的迫切需求。丙酮的销售所得降低了酚的生产成本。 A major part对一个新产品进行工艺开发的一个重要部分是通过设计把废品减到最低，或尽可能地防止可能的污染，这样做带来的经济利益和对环境的益处是显而易见的。 Finally it should be noted that最后要注意，工业开发需要包括化学家、化学工程师、电子和机械工程师这样一支庞大队伍的协同合作才能取得成功。 （3）process improvement工艺改进。工艺改进与正在进行的工艺有关。它可能出现了某个问题使生产停止。在这种情形下，就面临着很大的压力要尽快地解决问题以便生产重新开始，因为故障期耗费资财。 然而，更为常见的commonly，工艺改进是为了提高生产过程的利润。这可以通过很多途径实现。例如通过优化流程提高产量，引进新的催化剂提高效能，或降低生产过程所需要的能量。可说明后者的一个例子是在生产氨的过程中涡轮压缩机的引进。这使生产氨的成本（主要是电）从每吨6.66美元下降到0.56美元。通过工艺的改善提高产品质量也会为产品打开新的市场。 然而，近年来in rencent years，最重要的工艺改进行为主要是减少生产过程对环境的影响，亦即防止生产过程所引起的污染。很明显，有两个相关连的因素推动这样做。第一，公众对化学产品的安全性及其对环境所产生影响的关注以及由此而制订出来的法律；第二，生产者必须花钱对废物进行处理以便它能安全地清除，比如说，排放到河水中。显然这是生产过程的又一笔费用，它将增加所生产化学产品的成本。通过减少废物数量提高效益其潜能是不言而喻的。 然而，请注意note，with a plant对于一个已经建好并正在运行的工厂来说，只能做一些有限的改变来达到上述目的。因此，上面所提到的减少废品的重要性应在新公厂的设计阶段加以考虑。近年来另一个当务之急是保护能源及降低能源消耗。 （4）application development应用开发。显然发掘一个产品新的用处或新的用途能拓宽它的获利渠道。这不仅能创造更多的收入，而且由于产量的增加使单元生产成本降低，从而使利润提高。举例来说，早期是用来制造唱片和塑料雨衣的，后来的用途扩展到塑料薄膜，特别是工程上所使用的管子和排水槽。 我们已经强调emphasis了化学产品是由于它们的效果，或特殊的用途、用处而得以售出这个事实。这就意味着化工产品公司的技术销售代表与顾客之间应有密切的联系。对顾客的技术支持水平往往是赢得销售的一个重要的因素。进行研究和开发的化学家们为这些应用开发提供了帮助。33的制造就是一个例子。它最开始是用来做含氟氯烃的替代物作冷冻剂的。然而近来发现它还可以用作从植物中萃取出来的天然物质的溶解剂。当它作为制冷剂被制造时，固然没有预计到这一点，但它显然也是应用开发的一个例子 。 Unit3设计 Based on the experience and data根据在实验室和中试车间获得的经验和数据，一组工程师集中起来设计工业化的车间。化学工程师的职责就是详细说明所有过程中的流速和条件，设备类型和尺寸，制造材料，流程构造，控制系统，环境保护系统以及其它相关技术参数。这是一个责任重大的工作。 The design stage设计阶段是大把金钱花进去的时候。一个常规的化工流程可能需要五千万到一亿美元的资金投入，有许多的事情要做。化学工程师是做出很多决定的人之一。当你身处其位时，你会对自己曾经努力学习而能运用自己的方法和智慧处理这些问题感到欣慰。 设计阶段design stage的产物是很多图纸： （1）工艺流程图flow sheets。是显示所有设备的图纸。要标出所有的流线和规定的条件（流速、温度、压力、构造、粘度、密度等）。 （2）管道及设备图piping and instrumentation。标明drawings所有设备（包括尺寸、喷嘴位置和材料）、所有管道（包括大小、控制阀、控制器）以及所有安全系统（包括安全阀、安全膜位置和大小、火舌管、安全操作规则）。 （3）仪器设备说明书equipmen specification sheet s。详细说明所有设备准确的空间尺度、操作参数、构造材料、耐腐蚀性、操作温度和压力、最大和最小流速以及诸如此类等等。这些规格说明书应交给中标的设备制造厂以进行设备生产。 3.建造construction After the equipment manufactures当设备制造把设备的所有部分都做好了以后，这些东西要运到工厂所在地（有时这是后勤部门颇具挑战性的任务，尤其对象运输分馏塔这样大型的船只来说）。建造阶段要把所有的部件装配成完整的工厂，首先要做的就是在地面打洞并倾入混凝土，为大型设备及建筑物打下基础（比如控制室、流程分析实验室、维修车间）。 完成了第一步initial activities，就开始安装设备的主要部分以及钢铁上层建筑。要装配热交换器、泵、压缩机、管道、测量元件、自动控制阀。控制系统的线路和管道连接在控制室和操作间之间。电线、开关、变换器需装备在马达上以驱动泵和压缩机。生产设备安装完毕后，化学工程师的职责就是检查它们是否连接完好，每部分是否正常工作。