曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案15章

stic Competition

WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION:

There are no major changes to this chapter.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this chapter, students should understand:

what market structures lie between monopoly and competition.

competition among firms that sell differentiated products.

how the outcomes under monopolistic competition and under perfect competition compare.

the desirability of outcomes in monopolistically competitive markets.

the debate over the effects of advertising.

the debate over the role of brand names.

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:

Chapter 16 is the fourth chapter in a five-chapter sequence dealing with firm behavior and the organization of industry. The previous two chapters developed the two extreme forms of market structure —competition and monopoly. The market structure that lies between

MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

16

competition and monopoly is known as imperfect competition. There are two types of imperfect competition—monopolistic competition and oligopoly. This chapter addresses monopolistic competition while the final chapter in the sequence addresses oligopoly. The analysis in this chapter is again based on the cost curves developed in Chapter 13.

The purpose of Chapter 16 is to address monopolistic competition—a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical. Monopolistic competition differs from perfect competition because each of the many sellers offers a somewhat different product. As a result, monopolistically competitive firms face a downward-sloping demand curve while competitive firms face a horizontal demand curve at the market price. Monopolistic competition is extremely common.

KEY POINTS:

A monopolistically competitive market is characterized by three attributes: many firms,

differentiated products, and free entry.

The long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market differs from that in a perfectly competitive market in two related ways. First, each firm in a monopolistically competitive market has excess capacity. That is, it chooses a quantity that puts it on the downward-sloping portion of the average-total-cost curve. Second, each firm charges a price above marginal cost.

Monopolistic competition does not have all of the desirable properties of perfect

competition. There is the standard deadweight loss of monopoly caused by the markup of price over marginal cost. In addition, the number of firms (and thus the variety of

products) can be too large or too small. In practice, the ability of policymakers to

correct these inefficiencies is limited.

The product differentiation inherent in monopolistic competition leads to the use of

advertising and brand names. Critics of advertising and brand names argue that firms use

them to manipulate consumers’ tast es and to reduce competition. Defenders of advertising and brand names argue that firms use them to inform consumers and to compete more

vigorously on price and product quality.

CHAPTER OUTLINE:

I. Between Monopoly and Perfect Competition

A. The typical firm has some market power, but its market power is not as great as that

described by monopoly.

B. Firms in imperfect competition lie somewhere between the competitive model and the

monopoly model.

C. Definition of oligopoly: a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar

or identical products.

1. Economists measure a market’s domination by a small number of firms with a

statistic called a concentration ratio.

2. The concentration ratio is the percentage of total output in the market supplied

by the four largest firms.

3. In the . economy, most industries have a four-firm concentration ratio under 50%.

D. Definition of monopolistic competition: a market structure in which many firms sell

products that are similar but not identical.

1. Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition

a. Many Sellers

b. Product Differentiation

c. Free Entry

E. Figure 1 summarizes the four types of market structure. Note that it is the number of

firms and the type of product sold that distinguishes one market structure from

another.

II. Competition with Differentiated Products

A. The Monopolistically Competitive Firm in the Short Run

1. Each firm in monopolistic competition faces a downward-sloping demand curve

because its product is different from those offered by other firms.

2. The monopolistically competitive firm follows a monopolist's rule for maximizing

profit.

a. It chooses the output level where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost.

b. It sets the price using the demand curve to ensure that consumers will demand

exactly the amount produced.

Figure 2

3. We can determine whether or not the monopolistically competitive firm is earning a

profit or loss by comparing price and average total cost.

a. If P > ATC, the firm is earning a profit.

b. If P < ATC, the firm is earning a loss.

c. If P = ATC, the firm is earning zero economic profit.

B. The Long-Run Equilibrium

1. When firms in monopolistic competition are making profit, new firms have an

incentive to enter the market.

a. This increases the number of products from which consumers can choose.

b. Thus, the demand curve faced by each firm shifts to the left.

c. As the demand falls, these firms experience declining profit.

2. When firms in monopolistic competition are incurring losses, firms in the market

will have an incentive to exit.

a. Consumers will have fewer products from which to choose.

b. Thus, the demand curve for each firm shifts to the right.

c. The losses of the remaining firms will fall.

3. The process of exit and entry continues until the firms in the market are earning

zero profit.

a. This means that the demand curve and the average-total-cost curve are tangent

to each other.

b. At this point, price is equal to average total cost and the firm is earning

zero economic profit.

Figure 3

Remember that students have a hard time understanding why a firm will

continue to operate if it is earning “only” zero economic profit. Remind

4. There are two characteristics that describe the long-run equilibrium in a

monopolistically competitive market.

a. Price exceeds marginal cost (due to the fact that each firm faces a downward-

sloping demand curve).

b. Price equals average total cost (due to the freedom of entry and exit).

C. Monopolistic versus Perfect Competition

1. Excess Capacity

a. The quantity of output produced by a monopolistically competitive firm is

smaller than the quantity that minimizes average total cost (the efficient

scale).

b. This implies that firms in monopolistic competition have excess capacity,

because the firm could increase its output and lower its average total cost of

production.

c. Because firms in perfect competition produce where price is equal to the

minimum average total cost, firms in perfect competition produce at their

efficient scale.

2. Markup over Marginal Cost

a. In monopolistic competition, price is greater than marginal cost because the

firm has some market power.

b. In perfect competition, price is equal to marginal cost.

D. Monopolistic Competition and the Welfare of Society

1. One source of inefficiency is the markup over marginal cost. This implies a

deadweight loss (similar to that caused by monopolies).

2. Because there are so many firms in this type of market structure, regulating these

firms would be difficult.

3. Also, forcing these firms to set price equal to marginal cost would force them out

of business (because they are already earning zero economic profit).

4. There are also externalities associated with entry.

a. The product-variety externality occurs because as new firms enter, consumers

get some consumer surplus from the introduction of a new product. Note that

this is a positive externality.

b. The business-stealing externality occurs because as new firms enter, other

firms lose customers and profit. Note that this is a negative externality.

c. Depending on which externality is larger, a monopolistically competitive market

could have too few or too many products.

5. In the News: Insufficient Variety as a Market Failure

a. Firms may insufficiently service consumers with unusual preferences in markets

with large fixed costs

b. This article from Slate describes how some consumers get left out of the market

because of the high fixed costs associated with creating additional varieties

of a product.

III. Advertising

A. The Debate over Advertising

1. The Critique of Advertising

a. Firms advertise to manipulate people's tastes.

b. Advertising impedes competition because it increases the perception of product

differentiation and fosters brand loyalty. This means that consumers will be

less concerned with price differences among similar goods.

2. The Defense of Advertising

a. Firms use advertising to provide information to consumers.

b. Advertising fosters competition because it allows consumers to be better

informed about all of the firms in the market.

3. Case Study: Advertising and the Price of Eyeglasses

a. In the United States during the 1960s, states differed on whether or not they

allowed advertising for optometrists.

b. In the states that prohibited advertising, the average price paid for a pair of

eyeglasses in 1963 was $33; in states that allowed advertising, the average

price was $26 (a difference of more than 20%).

B. Advertising as a Signal of Quality

1. The willingness of a firm to spend a large amount of money on advertising may be a

signal to consumers about the quality of the product being offered.

2. Example: Kellogg and Post have each developed a new cereal that would sell for $3

per box. (Assume that the marginal cost of producing the cereal is zero.) Each

company knows that if it spends $10 million on advertising, it will get one

million new consumers to try the product. If consumers like the product, they will buy it again.

a. Post has discovered through market research that its new cereal is not very

good. After buying it once, consumers would not likely buy it again. Thus, it

will only earn $3 million in revenue, which would not be enough to pay for the

advertising. Therefore, it does not advertise.

b. Kellogg knows that its cereal is great. Each person that buys it will likely

buy one box per month for the next year. Therefore, its sales would be $36

million, which is more than enough to justify the advertisement.

c. By its willingness to spend money on advertising, Kellogg signals to consumers

the quality of its cereal.

3. Note that the content of the advertisement is unimportant; what is important is

that consumers know that the advertisements are expensive.

C. Brand Names

1. In many markets there are two types of firms; some firms sell products with widely

recognized brand names while others sell generic substitutes.

2. Critics of brand names argue that they cause consumers to perceive differences

that do not really exist.

3. Economists have defended brand names as a useful way to ensure that goods are of

high quality.

a. Brand names provide consumers with information about quality when quality

cannot be judged easily in advance of purchase.

b. Brand names give firms an incentive to maintain high quality, because firms

have a financial stake in maintaining the reputation of their brand names.

SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:

Quick Quizzes

1. Oligopoly is a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or

identical products. Examples include the market for breakfast cereals and the world market for crude oil. Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical. Examples

include the markets for novels, movies, restaurant meals, and computer games.

2. The three key attributes of monopolistic competition are: (1) there are many

sellers; (2) each firm produces a slightly different product; and (3) firms can enter or exit the market freely.

Figure 1 shows the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market.

This equilibrium differs from that in a perfectly competitive market because price exceeds marginal cost and the firm does not produce at the minimum point of

average total cost but instead produces at less than the efficient scale.

Figure 1

3. Advertising may make m arkets less competitive if it manipulates people’s tastes

rather than being informative. Advertising may give consumers the perception that there is a greater difference between two products than really exists. That makes the demand curve for a product more inelastic, so the firms can then charge

greater markups over marginal cost. However, some advertising could make markets more competitive because it sometimes provides useful information to consumers,

allowing them to take advantage of price differences more easily. Advertising also

facilitates entry because it can be used to inform consumers about a new product.

In addition, expensive advertising can be a signal of quality.

Brand names may be beneficial because they provide information to consumers about

the quality of goods. They also give firms an incentive to maintain high quality,

since their reputations are important. But brand names may be criticized because

they may simply differentiate products that are not really different, as in the

case of drugs that are identical with the brand-name drug selling at a much higher

price than the generic drug.

Questions for Review

1. The three attributes of monopolistic competition are: (1) there are many sellers;

(2) each seller produces a slightly different product; and (3) firms can enter or

exit the market without restriction. Monopolistic competition is like monopoly

because firms face a downward-sloping demand curve, so price exceeds marginal cost.

Monopolistic competition is like perfect competition because, in the long run,

price equals average total cost, as free entry and exit drive economic profit to

zero.

2. In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is

making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC).

Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve

to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a

decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost

(ATC), so profits are now zero.

Figure 2

3. Figure 3 shows the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market.

Price equals average total cost. Price is above marginal cost.

Figure 3

4. Because, in equilibrium, price is above marginal cost, a monopolistic competitor

produces too little output. But this is a hard problem to solve because: (1) the administrative burden of regulating the large number of monopolistically

competitive firms would be high; and (2) the firms are earning zero economic

profits, so forcing them to price at marginal cost means that firms would lose money unless the government subsidized them.

5. Advertising might reduce economic well-being because it manipulates people's

tastes and impedes competition by making products appear more different than they

really are. But advertising might increase economic well-being by providing useful

information to consumers and fostering competition.

6. Advertising with no apparent informational content might convey information to

consumers if it provides a signal of quality. A firm will not be willing to spend

much money advertising a low-quality good, but may be willing to spend

significantly more to advertise a high-quality good.

7. The two benefits that might arise from the existence of brand names are: (1) brand

names provide consumers information about quality when quality cannot be easily

judged in advance; and (2) brand names give firms an incentive to maintain high

quality to maintain the reputation of their brand names.

Quick Check Multiple Choice

1. b

2. d

3. a

4. d

5. a

6. c

Problems and Applications

1. a. Tap water is a monopoly because there is a single seller of tap water to a

household .

b. Bottled water is a monopolistically competitive market. There are many sellers

of bottled water, but each firm tries to differentiate its own brand from the

rest.

c. The cola market is an oligopoly. There are only a few firms that control a

large portion of the market.

d. The beer market is an oligopoly. There are only a few firms that control a

large portion of the market.

2. a. The market for wooden #2 pencils is perfectly competitive because pencils by

any manufacturer are identical and there are a large number of manufacturers.

b. The market for copper is perfectly competitive, because all copper is identical

and there are a large number of producers.

c. The market for local electricity service is monopolistic because it is a

natural monopoly—it is cheaper for one firm to supply all the output.

d. The market for peanut butter is monopolistically competitive because different

brand names exist with different quality characteristics.

e. The market for lipstick is monopolistically competitive because lipstick from

different firms differs slightly, but there are a large number of firms that

can enter or exit without restriction.

3. a. A firm in monopolistic competition sells a differentiated product from its

competitors.

b. A firm in monopolistic competition has marginal revenue less than price.

c. Neither a firm in monopolistic competition nor in perfect competition earns

economic profit in the long run.

d. A firm in perfect competition produces at the minimum average total cost in the

long run.

e. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a firm in perfect competition

equate marginal revenue and marginal cost.

f. A firm in monopolistic competition charges a price above marginal cost.

4. a. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm face a downward-

sloping demand curve.

b. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm have marginal

revenue that is less than price.

c. A firm in monopolistic competition faces the entry of new firms selling similar

products.

d. A monopoly firm earns economic profit in the long run.

e. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm equate marginal

revenue and marginal cost.

f. Neither a firm in monopolistic competition nor a monopoly firm produces the

socially efficient quantity of output.

5. a. The firm is not maximizing profit. For a firm in monopolistic competition,

price is greater than marginal revenue. If price is below marginal cost,

marginal revenue must be less than marginal cost. Thus, the firm should reduce its output to increase its profit.

b. The firm may be maximizing profit if marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost.

However, the firm is not in long-run equilibrium because price is less than

average total cost. In this case, firms will exit the industry and the demand

facing the remaining firms will rise until economic profit is zero.

c. The firm is not maximizing profit. For a firm in monopolistic competition,

price is greater than marginal revenue. If price is equal to marginal cost,

marginal revenue must be less than marginal cost. Thus, the firm should reduce its output to increase its profit.

d. The firm could be maximizing profit if marginal revenue is equal to marginal

cost. The firm is in long-run equilibrium because price is equal to average

total cost. Therefore, the firm is earning zero economic profit.

6. a. Figure 4 illustrates the market for Sparkle toothpaste in long-run equilibrium.

The profit-maximizing level of output is Q M and the price is P M.

Figure 4

b. Sparkle's profit is zero, because at quantity Q M, price equals average total

cost.

c. The consumer surplus from the purchase of Sparkle toothpaste is areas A + B.

The efficient level of output occurs where the demand curve intersects the

marginal-cost curve, at Q C. The deadweight loss is area C, the area above

marginal cost and below demand, from Q M to Q C.

d. If the government forced Sparkle to produce the efficient level of output, the

firm would lose money because average total cost would exceed price, so the

firm would shut down. If that happened, Sparkle's customers would earn no

consumer surplus.

曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案8章

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曼昆经济学原理试题Chapter 08a

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曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案22章

WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION: A new Case Study on Left-Digit Bias has been added and a new In the News feature on "Can Brain Science Improve Economics" has been added. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, students should understand: how to examine problems caused by asymmetric information. the market solutions to asymmetric information. why democratic voting systems may not represent the preferences of society. why people may not always behave as rational maximizers. CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: Chapter 22 is the last chapter in the microeconomics portion of the text. It is the second of two unrelated chapters that introduce students to advanced topics in microeconomics. These two chapters are intended to whet their appetites for further study in economics. The purpose of Chapter 22 is to give students a taste of three topics on the frontier of microeconomic research. The first topic addressed is asymmetric information , a situation when one person in an economic relationship has more relevant knowledge than the other person does. The second topic is political economy , the application of economic tools to the understanding of the functioning of government. The third topic addressed is behavioral economics , the introduction of psychology into the study of economic issues. 22 FRONTIERS OF MICROECONOMICS

曼昆经济学原理答案30—34

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第十二篇短期经济波动 第三十一章总需求与总供给 复习题 1．写出当经济进入衰退时下降的两个宏观经济变量的名字。写出当经济进入衰退时上升的一个宏观经济变量的名字。 答：当经济进入衰退时，实际GDP和投资支出下降，失业率上升。 2．画出一个有总需求、短期总供给和长期 总供给的曲线的图。仔细地标出正确的轴。 答： 图31—1 经济的长期均衡 3．列出并解释总需求曲线向右下方倾斜的 三个原因。 答：为了理解总需求曲线向右下 方倾斜的原因，我们必须考察物价水平如何影响消费、投资和净出口的物品与劳务需求量。 (1)庇古的财富效应

物价水平下降使消费者感到更富裕，这又鼓励他们更多地支出，消费支出增加意味着物品与劳务的需求量更大。 (2)凯恩斯的利率效应 较低的物价水平降低了利率，鼓励了家庭和企业更多地支出于投资物品，从而增加了物品与劳务的需求量。 (3)蒙代尔——弗莱明汇率效应 当美国物价水平下降引起美国利率下降时，实际汇率贬值，而且这种贬值刺激了美国的净出口，从而增加了国外对美国物品与劳务的需求量。 由于这三个原因，总需求曲线向右下方倾斜。 4．解释为什么长期总供给曲线是垂线。 答：在长期中，一个经济的物品与劳务的供给取决于它资本与劳动的供给，以及用来把资本与劳动变为物品与劳务的生产技术。由于物价水平并不影响这些实际GDP的长期决定因素，所以长期总供给曲线是一条垂线，即经济的资本、劳动和技术决定了物品与劳务供给量，而且，无论物价水平如何变动，供给量都是相同的。

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经济学原理名词解释 CHAPTER 1 Scarcity : the limited nature of society’s resources. Economics : the study of how society manages its scarce resources. Efficiency : the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources. Equity : the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of society. Opportunity cost : whatever must be given up to obtain some item. Marginal changes : small incremental adjustments to a plan of action. Market economy : an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services. Market failure : a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficiently. Externality : the impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander. Market power : the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market prices. Productivity : the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time. Inflation : an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. Phillips curve : a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. Business cycle : fluctuations in economic activity, such as employment and production. CHAPTER 2 Circular-flow diagram : a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms.

曼昆经济学原理试题及答案

一、名词解释（每小题5分，共50分） 1.机会成本 2.科斯定理 3.搭便车 4.囚徒困境 5.菲利普斯曲线 6.供应学派 7.凯恩斯革命 8.看不见的手 9.比较优势 10.外部性 二、简述题（第11、12、13题各12分，14题14分，共50分） 1.简述银行存款的创造过程。 2.简述失业的根源及其类型。 3.简述节俭的是非。 4.根据有关经济学原理，简析我国森林减少、珍稀动物来绝的原因及解决的措施。 三、论述题(每小题25分，共计50分) 1.论述人民币升值对中国经济的影响。 2.论述政府公共投资对国民经济的作用。 一、名词解释（每小题5分，共50分） 1.机会成本:指人们利用一定资源获得某种收入时所放弃的在其他可能的用途中所能够获取的最大收入。生产一单位的某种商品的机会成本是指生产者所放弃的使用相同的生产要素在其他生产用途中所能得到的最高收入。机会成本的存在需要三个前提条件。第一，资源是稀缺的；第二，资源具有多种生产用途；第三，资源的投

向不受限制。从机会成本的角度来考察生产过程时，厂商需要将生产要素投向收益最大的项目，而避免带来生产的浪费，达到资源配置的最优。机会成本的概念是以资源的稀缺性为前提提出的。从经济资源的稀缺性这一前提出发，当一个社会或一个企业用一定的经济资源生产一定数量的一种或者几种产品时，这些经济资源就不能同时被使用在其他的生产用途方面。这就是说，这个社会或这个企业所能获得的一定数量的产品收入，是以放弃用同样的经济资源来生产其他产品时所能获得的收入作为代价的。这也是机会成本产生的缘由。因此，社会生产某种产品的真正成本就是它不能生产另一些产品的代价。所以，机会成本的含义是：任何生产资源或生产要素一般都有多种不同的使用途径或机会，也就是说可以用于多种产品的生产。但是当一定量的某种资源用于生产甲种产品时，就不能同时用于生产乙种产品。因此生产甲种产品的真正成本就是不生产乙种产品的代价，或者是等于该种资源投放于乙种产品生产上可能获得的最大报酬。一种资源决定用于甲种产品，就牺牲了生产其他产品的机会；从事生产甲种产品的收入，是由于不从事或放弃其他产品生产的机会而产生的。 2.科斯定理:指一种产权理论。科斯本人并未将科斯定理写成文字，科斯定理的提出是由其好友斯蒂格勒首先根据科斯于20世纪60年代发表的《社会成本问题》这篇论文的内容概括出来的。其内容是：只要财产权是明确的，并且其交易成本为0或者很小，则无论在开始时财产权的配置是怎么样的，市场均衡的最终结果都是有效率的。科斯定理进一步扩大了“看不见的手”的作用。按照这个定理，只要那些假设条件成立，则外部影响就不可能导致资源配置不当。或者以另一角度来说，在所给条件下，市场力量足够强大，总能够使外部影响以最经济的办法来解决，从而仍然可以实现帕累托最优状态。西方学者认为，明确的财产权及其转让可以使得私人成本（或利益）与社会成本（或利益）趋于一致。以污染问题为例，科斯定理意味着，一旦所需条件均被满足，则污染者的私人边际成本曲线就会趋于上升，直到与边际社会成本曲线完全重合，从而污染者的利润最大化产量将下降至社会最优产量水平。 科斯定理解决外部影响问题在实际中并不—定真的有效。资产的财产权不一定总是能够明确地加以规定；已经明确的财产权不一定总是能够转让；分派产权会影响收入分配，而收入分配的变动可以造成社会不公平，引起社会动乱。在社会动乱的情况下，就谈不上解决外部效果的问题了。 3.搭便车：指不付成本或支付很低的成本而消费公共产品的行为。公共产品的特点决定了私人厂商不愿自动提供这种产品。这是因为在公用产品消费中存在“搭便车”问题，即每个人都想不付任何成本，或只支付很低的代价，来享受公共产品的服务。由于公共物品具有消费的非竞争性和受益的非排他性，人们可以在不付费的情况下享受公共物品所带来的效益。因此公共产品覆盖的消费者人数越多，搭便车问题就越严重，公共产品由私人厂商提供出来的可能性就越小。例如：1970年美国通用汽车公司研制出了一种汽车污染物排放控制装置，每个售价20美金，如果每个车尾都装上这一装置，可使汽车排放的污染下降30％至50％。然而，污染的降低是一种公共产品，每个人呼吸空气质量是否改善并不取决于自己的车上是否装上这个新发明，而是取决于该地区大多数车主的选择，于是大多数人都不想多花20美元而只是试图搭便车，结果，在私人市场上，这种公共产品的产量总难以达到最佳水平。私人不能提供公共产品，就只能由政府出面担当此项职能。事实上，私人经济中的政府，最初就是为了提供公共产品(法律、国防、公安等等)的目的由众多私人共同建立起来的。政府这一职能具体体现为：①尽可能正确地估价社会对公用产品的实际需求；②按照社会福利最大化的原则确定税收比率，并用税收收入购置公用产品，为公众提供服务。 4.囚徒困境：指两个被捕获的囚犯之间的一种特殊“博弈”，说明为什么甚至在合作对双方有利时，保持合作也是困难的。囚犯两难处境的故事包含着一个一般性的结论，这个结论适用于任何一个力图维持其成员合作的集团。这是博弈论中的一个经典例证，同一市场上的寡头在力图达到垄断结果时的博弈类似于两个处于两难处境的囚犯的博弈。具体情况如下：两囚徒被指控是一桩罪案的同案犯。他们被分关在不同的牢房且无法互通信息。各囚徒都被要求坦白罪行。如果两囚徒都坦白，各将被判入狱5年；如果两人都不坦白，则很难对他们提起刑事诉讼，因而两囚徒可以期望被从轻发落为入狱2年；另一方面，如果一个囚徒坦白而另一个囚徒不坦白，坦白的囚徒就只需入狱1年，而另一个将被判入狱10年。那么囚徒将会怎么选择呢？下表归纳了各种可能的结果。（其中“得益”是负的，表格右下角单元格意思是两个囚徒各2年徒刑）。该表说明，这两个囚徒面临着一种困境。如果他们都不坦白（以一种会遵守的方法），那么两人只需入狱仅仅2年。但他们不能相互讲话，如果囚徒A不坦白，他就冒着被B利用的危险。因为不管囚徒A怎么选择，囚徒B坦白总是最优方案。

曼昆经济学原理宏观经济学第六版答案

曼昆经济学原理宏观经济学第六版答案【篇一：曼昆经济学原理(宏观部分答案)】 >第二十三章一国收入的衡量 复习题 1 ．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其支出? 答：对一 个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。因为每一次交易都有两方： 买者和卖者。一个买者的1 美元支出是另一个卖者的1 美元收入。 因此，交易对经济的收入和支出作出了相同的贡献。由于gdp 既衡 量总收入 135 又衡量总支出，因而无论作为总收入来衡量还是作为 总支出来衡量，gdp 都相等. 2 ．生产一辆经济型轿车或生产一辆豪华型轿车，哪一个对gdp 的 贡献更大？为什么? 答：生产一辆豪华型轿车对gdp 的贡献大。因 为gdp 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的 市场价值。由于市场价格衡量人们愿意为各种不同物品支付的量， 所以市场价格反映了这些物品的市场价值。由于一辆豪华型轿车的 市场价格高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价格，所以一辆豪华型轿车的 市场价值高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价值，因而生产一辆豪华型轿 车对gdp 的贡献更大. 3 ．农民以2 美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师。面包师用小麦制成面包，以3 美元的价格出售。这些交易对 gdp 的贡献是多少呢? 答： 对gdp 的贡献是3 美元。gdp 只包括最终物品的价值，因为中间物 品的价值已经包括在最终物品的价格中了. 4 ．许多年以前，peggy 为了收集唱片而花了500 美元。今天她在 旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100 美元. 这种销售如何影响现期gdp? 答：现期gdp 只包括现期生产的物品与劳务，不包括涉及过去生产的东西的交易。因而这种销售不影响 现期gdp. 5 ．列出gdp 的四个组成部分。各举一个例子. 答：gdp 等于消费(c)+投资(i)+政府购买(g)+净出口(nx) 消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出，如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐. 投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司 建立一个汽车厂. 政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇.

曼昆经济学原理英文版第11章

Examine why people tend to use common r esour ces too much Consider some of the impor tant common r esour ces in our economy Consider some of the impor tant public goods in our economy Lear n t he def ini ng characteristics of public goods and common r esour ces Examine why private markets fail to pr ovide public goods See why the cost-benefit analysis of public goods is both necessar y and dif ficult An old song lyric maintains that “the best things in life are free.” A moment’s thought reveals a long list of goods that the songwriter could have had in mind. Na-ture provides some of them, such as rivers, mountains, beaches, lakes, and oceans.The government provides others, such as playgrounds, parks, and parades. In each case, people do not pay a fee when they choose to enjoy the benefit of the good.Free goods provide a special challenge for economic analysis. Most goods in our economy are allocated in markets, where buyers pay for what they receive and sellers are paid for what they provide. For these goods, prices are the signals that guide the decisions of buyers and sellers. When goods are available free of charge,however, the market forces that normally allocate resources in our economy are absent. In this chapter we examine the problems that arise for goods without market prices. Our analysis will shed light on one of the Ten Principles of Economics P U B L I C G O O D S A N D C O M M O N R E S O U R C E S 225

曼昆经济学原理 课后答案

第一篇导言 第一章经济学十大原理 复习题 1．列举三个你在生活中面临的重要权衡取舍的例子。 答：①大学毕业后，面临着是否继续深造的选择，选择继续上学攻读研究生学位，就意味着在今后三年中放弃参加工作、赚工资和积累社会经验的机会；②在学习内容上也面临着很重要的权衡取舍，如果学习《经济学》，就要减少学习英语或其他专业课的时间；③对于不多的生活费的分配同样面临权衡取舍，要多买书，就要减少在吃饭、买衣服等其他方面的开支。 2．看一场电影的机会成本是什么? 答：看一场电影的机会成本是在看电影的时间里做其他事情所能获得的最大收益，例如：看书、打零工。 3．水是生活必需的。一杯水的边际利益是大还是小呢? 答：这要看这杯水是在什么样的情况下喝，如果这是一个人五分钟内喝下的第五杯水，那么他的边际利益很小，有可能为负；如果这是一个极度干渴的人喝下的第一杯水，那么他的边际利益将会极大。 4．为什么决策者应该考虑激励? 答：因为人们会对激励做出反应。如果政策改变了激励，它将使人们改变自己的行为，当决策者未能考虑到行为如何由于政策的原因而变化时，他们的政策往往会产生意想不到的效果。 5．为什么各国之间的贸易不像竞赛一样有赢家和输家呢? 答：因为贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动，并从中享有更多的各种各样的物品与劳务。通过贸易使每个国家可供消费的物质财富增加，经济状况变得更好。因此，各个贸易国之间既是竞争对手，又是经济合作伙伴。在公平的贸易中是“双赢”或者“多赢”的结果。 6．市场中的那只“看不见的手”在做什么呢? 答：市场中那只“看不见的手”就是商品价格，价格反映商品自身的价值和社会成本，市场中的企业和家庭在作出买卖决策时都要关注价格。因此，他们也会不自觉地考虑自己行为的(社会)收益和成本。从而，这只“看不见的手”指引着千百万个体决策者在大多数情况下使社会福利趋向最大化。 7．解释市场失灵的两个主要原因，并各举出一个例子。 答：市场失灵的主要原因是外部性和市场势力。 外部性是一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。当一个人不完全承担(或享受)他的行为所造成的成本(或收益)时，就会产生外部性。举例：如果一个人不承担他在公共场所吸烟的全部成本，他就会毫无顾忌地吸烟。在这种情况下，政府可以通过制定禁止在公共场所吸烟的规章制度来增加经济福利。 市场势力是指一个人(或一小群人)不适当地影响市场价格的能力。例如：某种商品的垄断生产者由于几乎不受市场竞争的影响，可以向消费者收取过高的垄断价格。在这种情况下，规定垄断者收取的价格有可能提高经济效率。 8．为什么生产率是重要的? 答：因为一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力，而对这种能力的最重要的衡量度就是生产率。生产率越高，一国生产的物品与劳务量就越多。

曼昆经济学原理-习题答案

曼昆经济学原理-习题答案 第一篇导言 第一章经济学十大原理 1(列举三个你在生活中面临的重要权衡取合的例子。 答:?大学毕业后(面临着是否继续深造的选择，选择继续上学攻读研究生学位，就意味着在今后三年中放弃参加工作、赚工资和积累社会经验的机会;2、在学习为什么各国之间的贸易不像竞赛一样有赢家和输家呢? 答:因为贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的话动，并从中享有更多的各种各样的物品与劳务。通过贸易使每个国家可供消费的物质财富增加，经济状况变得更好。因此，各个贸易国之间既是竞争对手，又是经济合作伙伴。在公平的贸易中是“双赢”或者“多赢”的结果。 6(市场巾的那只“看不见的手”在做什么呢， 答:市场中那只“看不见的手”就是商品价格，价格反映商品自身的价值和社会成本，市场中的企业和家庭在作出买卖决策时都要关注价格。因此(他们也会不自觉地考虑自己行为的(社会)收益和成本。从而，这只“看不见的手”指引着干百万个体决策者在大多数情况下使社会福利趋向最大化。 7 解释市场失灵的两个主要原因，并各举出一个例子。 答:市场失灵的主要原因是外部性和市场势力。 外部性是一个人的行为对旁观者棉利的影响。当一个人小完全承担(或享受)他的行为所造成的成本(或收益)时，就会产生外部性。举例:如果一个人不承担他在公共场所吸烟的全部成本，他就会毫无顾忌地吸烟。在这种情况下，政府可以通过制定禁止在公共场所吸烟的规章制度来增加经济福利。

市场势力是指一个人(或一小群人)不适当地影响市场价格的能力。例如:某种商品的垄断生产者由于几乎不受市场竞争的影响，可以向消费者收取过高的垄断价格。在这种情况下，规定垄断者收取的价格有可能提高经济效率。 8(为什么生产率是重要的? 答:因为一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力，而对这种能力的最重要的衡量度就是生产率。生产率越高，一国生产的物品与劳务量就越多。 9什么是通货膨胀，什么引起了通货膨胀? 答:通货膨胀是流通中货币量的增加而造成的货币贬值生活中价格总水平上升。货币量增长引起了通货膨胀。 10(短期中通货膨胀与失业如何相关? 答:短期中通货膨胀与失业之间存在着权衡取台，这是由于某些价格调整缓慢造成的。政府为了抑制通货膨胀会减少流通中的货币量，人们可用于支出的货币数量减少了，但是商品价格在短期描写下列各种情况所面临的权衡取舍: A(一个家庭决定是否买一辆车。 答:如果买新车就要减少家庭其他方面的开支，如:外出旅行，购置新家具;如果不买新车就享受不到驾驶新车外出的方便和舒适。 B国会议员决定对国家公园支出多少。 答:对国家公园的支出数额大，国家公园的条件可以得到改善，环境会得到更好的保护。但同时，政府可用于文通、邮电等其他公共事业的支出就会减少。 C一个公司总裁决定是否开一家新厂。 答:开一家新厂可以扩大企业规模，生产更多的产品。但可能用于企业研发的资金就少了。 这样(企业开发新产品、利用新技术的进度可能会减慢。 D(一个教援决定用多少时间备课。

曼昆《经济学原理》第五版宏观经济学习题答案(中文)

第 20 章货币制度 1、为什么银行不持有百分百的准备金？银行持有的准备金量和银行体系所创造的货币量 有什么关系？ 参考答案： 银行不持有百分百的准备金是因为把存款用于放贷并收取利息比持有全部存款更有利 可图。银行持有的准备金量和银行体系通过货币乘数所创造的货币量是相关的。银行的准备金率越低，货币乘数越大，所以银行存款的每一元钱可以创造更多的货币 2、考察以下情况如何影响经济的货币制度。 a、假设雅普岛的居民发现了一种制造石轮的简单方法。这种发现如何影响石轮作为货 币的有用性呢？并解释之。 b、假设美国某个人发现了一种仿造100 美元钞票的简单办法。这种发现将如何影响美 国的货币制度呢？并解释之。 参考答案： a、如果有一种制造石轮的简单方法，雅普岛上的居民就会制造多余的石轮，只要每个 石轮的货币价值大于制造它的成本。结果，人们会自己制造货币，于是就有太多的货币被制 造出来。最有可能的是，人们会停止接受石轮作为货币，而转向其他资产作为交换的媒介 b.如果美国有人发现了伪造百元面值美钞的简单方法，他们就会大量地生产这种假 钞，而降低百元美钞的价值，结果可能是转为使用另一种通货。 3、伯列戈瑞德州银行(BSB)有 2.5 亿美元存款，并保持10％的准备率。 a)列出 BSB的 T 账户。 b) 现在假设BSB的大储户从其账户中提取了1000 万美元现金。如果 BSB决定通过减 少其未清偿贷款量来恢复其准备率，说明它的新T 账户。 c) 解释 BSB的行动对其他银行有什么影响？ d) 为什么 BSB要采取 (b) 中所描述的行为是困难的？讨论BSB恢复其原来准备金率的 另一种方法。 参考答案： a. BSB的 T 账户如下： : 伯列戈瑞德州银行(BSB) 资产负债 准备金$25 million存款$250 million 贷款$225 million b.当 BSB的大储户提取了 1000 万美金现金，而 BSB通过减少其未清偿贷款量来恢复其 准备率，它的 T 账户如下：

曼昆经济学原理试题Chapter 09a

Chapter 9 Application: International Trade Test A 1. When the United States engages in international trade with China, a. it is an equal tradeoff so neither country benefits nor loses. b. China reaps economic benefits and the United States loses. c. both China and the United States reap economic benefits. d. China loses and the United States reaps economic benefits. ANSWER: c. both China and the United States reap economic benefits. TYPE: M KEY1: C OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 2. Countries usually impose restrictions on free foreign trade to protect a. domestic consumers. b. foreign consumers. c. foreign producers. d. domestic producers. ANSWER: d. domestic producers. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 3. If a country allows trade and the domestic price of a good is higher than the world price, a. the country will become an importer of the good. b. the country will become an exporter of the good. c. the country will neither export nor import the goo d. d. additional information about demand is needed to determine whether the country will export or import the good. ANSWER: a. the country will become an importer of the good. TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 4. A country has a comparative advantage in a product if the world price is a. equal to its domestic price. b. higher than its domestic price. c. lower than its domestic price. d. There is no way to tell by comparing the world price with the domestic pric e. ANSWER: b. higher than its domestic price. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 5. When a country allows trade and becomes an exporter of a good, a. both domestic producers and domestic consumers are better off. b. both domestic producers and domestic consumers are worse off. c. domestic producers are better off, and domestic consumers are worse off. d. domestic producers are worse off, and domestic consumers are better off. ANSWER: c. domestic producers are better off, and domestic consumers are worse off. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y

曼昆经济学原理课后答案__中文版

第一章经济学十大原理 复习题 1答：①大学毕业后，面临着是否继续深造的选择，选择继续上学攻读研究生学位，就意味着在今后三年中放弃参加工作、赚工资和积累社会经验的机会；②在学习内容上也面临着很重要的权衡取舍，如果学习《经济学》，就要减少学习英语或其他专业课的时间；③对于不多的生活费的分配同样面临权衡取舍，要多买书，就要减少在吃饭、买衣服等其他方面的开支。 2答：看一场电影的机会成本是在看电影的时间里做其他事情所能获得的最大收益，例如：看书、打零工。3答：这要看这杯水是在什么样的情况下喝，如果这是一个人五分钟内喝下的第五杯水，那么他的边际利益很小，有可能为负；如果这是一个极度干渴的人喝下的第一杯水，那么他的边际利益将会极大。 4答：因为人们会对激励做出反应，而政策会影响激励。如果政策改变了激励，它将使人们改变自己的行为，当决策者未能考虑到行为如何由于政策的原因而变化时，他们的政策往往会产生意想不到的效果。 5答：因为贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动，并从中享有更多的各种各样的物品与劳务。通过贸易使每个国家可供消费的物质财富增加，经济状况变得更好。因此，各个贸易国之间既是竞争对手，又是经济合作伙伴。在公平的贸易中是“双赢”或者“多赢”的结果。 6答：市场中那只“看不见的手”就是商品价格，价格反映商品自身的价值和社会成本，市场中的企业和家庭在作出买卖决策时都要关注价格。因此，他们也会不自觉地考虑自己行为的(社会)收益和成本。从而，这只“看不见的手”指引着千百万个体决策者在大多数情况下使社会福利趋向最大化。 7答：市场失灵的主要原因是外部性和市场势力。外部性是一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。当一个人不完全承担(或享受)他的行为所造成的成本(或收益)时，就会产生外部性。举例：如果一个人不承担他在公共场所吸烟的全部成本，他就会毫无顾忌地吸烟。在这种 情况下，政府可以通过制定禁止在公共场所吸烟的规章制度来增加经济福利。市场势力是指一个人(或一小群人)不适当地影响市场价格的能力。例如：某种商品的垄断生产者由于几乎不受市场竞争的影响，可以向消费者收取过高的垄断价格。在这种情况下，规定垄断者收取的价格有可能提高经济效率。 8答：因为一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力，而对这种能力的最重要的衡量度就是生产率。生产率越高，一国生产的物品与劳务量就越多。 9答：通货膨胀是流通中货币量的增加而造成的货币贬值，由此产生经济生活中价格总水平上升。货币量增长引起通货膨胀。 10答：短期中通货膨胀与失业之间存在着权衡取舍，这是由于某些价格调整缓慢造成的。政府为了抑制通货膨胀会减少流通中的货币量，人们可用于支出的货币数量减少了，但是商品价格在短期内是粘性的，仍居高不下，于是社会消费的商品和劳务量减少，消费量减少又引起企业解雇工人。在短期内，对通货膨胀的抑制增加了失业 量。 问题与应用 1A．答：如果买新车就要减少家庭其他方面的开支，如：外出旅行，购置新家具；如果不买新车就享受不到驾驶新车外出的方便和舒适。 B答：对国家公园的支出数额大，国家公园的条件可以得到改善，环境会得到更好的保护。但同时，政府可用于交通、邮电等其他公共事业的支出就会减少。 C答：开一家新厂可以扩大企业规模，生产更多的产品。但可能用于企业研发的资金就少了。这样，企业开发新产品、利用新技术的进度可能会减慢。 D答：教授如果将大部分时间用于自己搞研究，可能会出更多的成果，但备课时间的减少会影响给学生授课的质量。 E答：毕业后参加工作，可即刻获取工资收入；但继续读研究生，却能接受更多的知识和未来更高的收益。2答：这种心理上的收益可以用是否达到既定目标来衡量。对于这个行动前就会作出的既定目标，我们一定有一个为实现目标而愿意承担的成本范围。在这个可以承受的成本范围内，度假如果满足了既定目标，如：放松身心、恢复体力等等，那么，就可以说这次度假的收益至少不小于它的成本。 3答：去滑雪的真实成本是周六打工所能赚到的工资，我本可以利用这段时间去工作。如果我本计划这天在图书馆学习，那么去滑雪的成本是在这段时间里我可以获得的知识。 4答：现在花掉100 美元的机会成本是在一年后得到105 美元的银行支付(利息+本金)。 5答：还应该继续这项开发。因为现在它的边际收益是300 万美元，而边际成本是100 万美元。为了完成这项开发我最多能再花300 万美元。只要边际收益大于边际成本，就有利可图。 6答：我认为赫敏提出的决策方法正确。因为只有多卖一加仑饮料的额外收益大于它的额外成本时，多卖一加仑饮料才是有利可图的。理性人应该考虑边际量。 7A答：社会保障的提供使人们退休以后仍可以获得收入，以保证生活。因此，人们不用为不能工作时的生活费而发愁，人们在工作时期的储蓄就会减少。 B答：这会使65 岁以上的人在工作中不再积极进取。因为努力工作获得高收入反而会使得到的津贴减少，所以对65 岁以上的人的努力工作的激励减少了。