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语言学期末复习总结

语言学期末复习总结
语言学期末复习总结

5. What is Linguistics?

?The scientific study of human language

?Aims of linguistic theory:

?What is knowledge of language? (Competence)

?How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition)

?How is knowledge of language put to use?

(Performance/languageprocessing)

? A grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s

language:

?Phonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the sound system or

patterns)

?Lexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)

?Morphology (the structure of words)

?Syntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on

well-formedness of sentences)

?Semantics (the meaning of words and sentences)

Semantics

?The following are what the key concepts look like:

?semantic components

?denotation of words

?sense relations between words such as antonymy and

synonymy

?sense relations between sentences such as entailment

and presupposition and others

?The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the

synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles?

? 1. English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.

? 2. Protean Shape: A study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.

? 3. Pejorative Sense Development in English.

? 4. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.

? 5. Language in the inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.

Synchronic: 2, 4, 5.

Diachronic: 1, 3.

?Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a

speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realization

of langue.

?As a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speech

community seem to abide by. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of

the language. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions or application of the rules.

?We can compare them along the following dimensions. Langue is abstract;

parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actually

spoken by anyone; parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue is

relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational

constraints.

?Parole is a mass of confused facts and not suitable for systematic investigation.

What the linguist has to do is to abstract langue from instances of parole —

that is, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make

them the subject of linguistics.

?For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only

within a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole)

we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual ;

and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental. Competence and performance

This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).

Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.

?Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite

number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.

? A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by

psychological and social factors.

?Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’s distinction are not exactly the same.

Saussure’s langue is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech

community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each

individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of view

while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.

8.5 Linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior

?Another similar distinction is made by English linguist M. A. K. Halliday in

the 1960s, the distinction between linguistic potential and actual linguistic

behavior.

?Halliday looks at language from a functional point of view, he is

more concerned with what speakers do with language.

?With language, there is a wide range of things a speaker can do in

the culture he is in. There are many things he can say, for example, to many

people, on many topics.

?What he actually says on a particular occasion to a particular

individual is what he has selected from among the many possible things he

could have said.

?This leads to Halliday’s distinction between linguistic potential and

actual linguistic behaviour.

?His linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s Langue and

Chomsky’s competence, and his actual linguistic behaviour is similar to the

notions of parole and performance.

?Among the distinctions, parole, performance and actual linguistic behaviour

have a lot in common; but langue, competence and linguistic potential differ

considerably. They are similar only in one aspect, that is, they all refer to the

constant which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/ performance/

actual linguistic behaviour.

?Their difference is fairly obvious. Langue is a social property while linguistic

potential is something available for the speaker to select from. Competence is

a form of ―knowing‖ while linguistic potential is a set of possibilities for

―doing‖.

?The competence versus performance distinction is one between what a person

―knows‖ and what he ―does‖, while the linguistic potential versus actual

linguistic behaviour distinction is one between what a person ―can do‖ and

what a person ―does‖.

?Chapter Two Speech Sounds

?As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some

of these sounds have become units in the language system.

?We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major

areas of study are phonetics and phonology.

The sounds of English

?Received Pronunciation (RP)

?General American (GA)

?English consonants

The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:

?[p] voiceless bilabial stop

?[b] voiced bilabial stop

?[s] voiceless alveolar fricative

?[z] voiced alveolar fricative

?The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:

?the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);

?the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);

?the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),

and

?lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

?We can now describe the English vowels in this way:

From phonetics to phonology

Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.

For example, map , lamb .

Coarticulation

When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation .

If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb , it is known as anticipatory coarticulation .

If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation , as is the case of map .

[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak .

This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h , as [p h

], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].

When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription . The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription .

Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].

Phonological rules

1. assimilation rule

2. sequential rule

3. deletion rule

Sequential rules : The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, e.g. in English, “k, b, i, l ” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.

If a word begins with a [ l ] or a [ r ], then the next sound must be a vowel.

If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:

a) the first phoneme must be /s/;

b) the second phoneme must be /p/ /t/ or /k/;

c) the third phoneme must be /l/ /r/ or /w/.

E.g.Spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.

Deletion rule: The phonological rule, which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, is called deletion rule.

For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design,and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. The rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.

ChapterThree Lexicon

Morphology

Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.

Types of morphemes

Free vs. Bound morphemes:

Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg-s, -ed, dis-, un-.

Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness.

Roots may be

free: those that can stand by themselves, eg nation+-al.

bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg-ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.

Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into

prefix (dis-, un-) and

suffix(-en, -ify).

Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.

Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.

Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly> friendly.

Word-formation

Inflection

Nominal forms:boys, boy’s

Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting

Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest

Compounding

Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.

Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill

Verb compounds: brainwash, lipread, babysit

Adjective compounds:maneating,heartfelt ,dutyfree

Preposition compounds: into, throughout

Endocentric & exocentric

Endocentric:one element serves as the head, the relationship of ―a kind of‖; eg

self-control: a kind of control

armchair: a kind of chair

Exocentric:there is no head, so not a relationship of ―a kind of something‖, eg Scarecrow

breakneck

Written forms of compounds

Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard

Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length

Open: coffee table, washing machine

Free variation:

businessman, business-man, business man

winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle

no one, no-one, noone

Derivation

Class-changing:

N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard

N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless

V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant

V>A: acceptable, adorable

A>N: meanness, rapidity

A>V: deafen, sweeten

Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly

Class-preserving:

N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet

V>V: disobey, unfasten

A>A: grayish, irrelevant

?The base for the affix -ion is opt, the base for the suffix -al is option, and the

base for the suffix –ity is optional.

?Yes, opt is the root for the entire word.

. Lexical change

Formation of new words

Phonological change

Morphosyntactic change

Semantic change

Orthographic change

Types of loan words

Loanwords:

au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, sputnik

Loanblend

coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)

Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)

Loanshift

bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte Loan translation, or calque

free verse< L verse libre

black humor

found object

Loss of sound:

loss of the velar fricative /x/ which existed in O.E.

loss of sound

in fast speech,

egcabinet, postscript

and>’n in connected speech,

egrock-’n-roll

Addition of sound:

English: rascal > rapscallion

Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound

O.E. brid> bird, O.E. ox/ax> ask

Assimilation:

impossible, immovable

irregular, irresponsible

illogical, illegal

Semantic change

Broadening:

holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest

bird: young bird > any kind

task: tax imposed >a piece of work

Narrowing:

meat: food >

girl: young person > young woman

deer: beast > a special kind of animal

Meaning shift:

bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood Class shift:conversion to other word classes

engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)

Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase . history:Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.

his story>herstory

Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology

Manhattan: man with hat on

MBA: married but available

PhD: perhaps have divorced

golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden

Orthographic change

Change of spelling:

Iesus> Jesus

sate> sat

Sunne> Sun

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遗传因子的发现知识点总结.docx

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A 双雄受精 B 双雌受精 C 核内复制 D 不等交换 E 部分重复9.在蛋白质合成中,mRNA的功能是(3)。 A 串联核糖体 B 激活tRNA C 合成模板 D 识别氨基酸 E 延伸肽链10.在一个群体中,BB为64%,Bb为32%,bb为4%,B基因的频率为(4)。 A B C D E 11.一个个体中含有不同染色体数目的三种细胞系,这种情况称为(3)。 A 多倍体 B 非整倍体 C 嵌合体 D 三倍体 E 三体型 12.某基因表达的多肽中,发现一个氨基酸异常,该基因突变的方式是(5)。 A 移码突变 B 整码突变 C 无义突变 D 同义突变 E 错义突变13.一种多基因遗传病的群体易患性平均值与阈值相距越近(1)。 A 群体易患性平均值越高,群体发病率也越高 B 群体易患性平均值越低,群体发病率也越低 C 群体易患性平均值越高,群体发病率越低 D 群体易患性平均值越低,群体发病率迅速降低 E 群体易患性平均值越低,群体发病率越高 14.染色质和染色体是(4)。

语言学重点概念总结

Desig n features (定义特征): the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic (共时的): said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic (历时的): said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive (规定式): to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive (描写式): to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee (语言能力): uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee (语言运用): the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue (语言): the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole (言语): the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy (音系学): the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet (国际音标) a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels (基本元音): a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.

遗传学(第二版) 刘庆昌 重点整理2

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In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a6929044.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a6929044.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak

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语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a6929044.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns

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