27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter Three Phonetics 语音学

Chapter Three Phonetics 语音学（发音学）

The description and classification of speech sounds 语音的描述和分类

3.1 Phonetics and its sub-branches 语音学和它的分支

定义：Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies speech sounds.语音学是语言学的分支,主要研究语音。

The task of phonetics is to identify what are speech sounds in a lg and then study their physical characteristics.语音学的任务是定义什么是语音，然后研究他们的物理特性。

Not all the sounds made by human beings are speech sounds.并不是所有人类发出的声音都叫语音分类：Phonetics has three sub-branches :acoustic phonetics ,auditory phonetics and articulatory phonetics .语音学有三种分支：声学语音学，听觉语音学和发音语音学。

①the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.研究语音的物理性质和传播的被称为声学语音学。

②the study of the way hearers perceive these sounds is called auditory phonetics.研究听者理解这些声音的方式的叫做听觉语音学。

③the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.研究发音器官如何发声的学科被称为发音语音学。

3.2 speech organs（发音器官）

Other functions of speech organs like breathing and eating are biologically（生物）primary. Speech organs: through the glottis(声门){ the space between the vocal cords(声带)} →along the vocal tracts(声道):{made up of 2 parts：oral cavity(口腔)、nasal cavity(鼻腔)}

Oral cavity（口腔解剖）:1. lips（嘴唇）,2. teeth（牙齿）,3. teeth ridge(alveolar ridge)(齿龈), 4.hard palate(硬腭), 5.soft palate(velum)（软腭）, 6.uvula （小舌），7.tip of tongue （舌尖），8.blade of tongue （舌面），9.back of tongue （舌背），10.pharynx（咽），11.epiglottis（喉头盖）12.food passage（食道）13. vocal cords（声带）

3.3 classification of speech sounds 语音的分类

Speech sounds are produced by human speech organs. But not all the sounds produc ed by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.语音是人类语言产生的。但并不是所有由人类语言产生的声音都是语言符号。eg. sneezes（打喷嚏）

An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories.语音初分为两大类.consonants and vowels（辅音和元音）.

The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat，the nose or the mouth ，while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another .元音和辅音的基本差别是,前者发音时从肺部发出气流无阻碍地进到喉咙,鼻子或嘴,而后者是以这样或那样的方式造成阻塞。

总结：distinguished by whether there is any obstruction(阻碍) in the airstream when a speech sound is produced.

定义：

①a vowel is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.一个元音被定义为从肺呼出的气流而不以任何形式发生阻塞并且以声带振动发音的一个语音。

重点: no obstruction, but with vocal cord vibration.

②a consonant is a speech sound where the air from the lungs is either completely blocked，

or partially blocked，or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.一个辅音是从肺部呼出的气流要么完全阻塞,要么部分阻塞,或者发音器官的出发地方太窄了，听得到气流露出的摩擦音。

重点: air stream is completely blocked, or partially blocked, or escapes with friction.

3.3.1 classification of English consonants 辅音分类

The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.英语的辅音可从四个方面进行分类。

（1）the position of the soft palate:软腭位置

（2）the presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration声带的振动与否

（3）the place of articulation发音部位

（4）the manner of articulation发音方式

详细介绍：

1）the position of the soft palate软腭位置：①鼻腔辅音和②口腔辅音

①When the soft palate（velum）is lowered, the airstream from the lungs will have access to the nasal cavity as well as to the oral cavity. The consonants produced in this way are called nasal consonants.当软腭(软腭)降低,来自肺部的气流接近鼻腔以及口腔。以这种方式产生的辅音叫做鼻腔辅音。

②When the soft palate（velum）is raised against the back of throat，the airstream can have access only to the oral cavity. The sounds produced in this way are called oral consonants.

当软腭提高到喉咙后面,气流可以只能接近口腔。以这种方式产生的声音被称为口腔辅音。

英语中，there are three distinctive（独特）nasal consonants; [m], [n], [?].

2）the presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration 声带的振动与否：①浊辅音和②清辅音

①Voiced consonants are produced because the airstream passing through the glottis brings about vocal-cord vibration.产生浊辅音是因为气流通过声门时带来了声带振动。

②Voiceless consonants are pronounced because the airstream can pass freely through the glottis into the vocal cavity without vocal-cord vibration.清辅音发音是由于气流可以自由穿透声门到声腔却没有引起声带振动。

3）the place of articulation(发音部位):

定义：the place in the mouth where the obstruction occurs 气流阻塞在嘴中发生的部位

按发音部分可分为以下几类: ①双唇音、②唇齿音、③舌齿音、④齿龈音、⑤后齿龈音、⑥齿龈硬腭音、⑦硬腭音、⑧软腭音、⑨声门音

①Bilabial(双唇音)：consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted（限制）by the two lips，bilabial may be voiced or voiceless.[p],[b],[m],[w]

②Labiodentals(唇齿音)：consonants brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth，Labiodentals may be voiced or voiceless. [f], [v]

③Dentals/interdentals(齿音): consonants for which the flow of air is restricted by（限制）catching the tongue between the teeth. Dentals may be voiced or voiceless.[θ] [e]

④Alveolar(齿龈音)：consonants produced by bringing the tip of the tongue（舌尖）into contact with（接触）the upper teeth-ridge（上齿脊）to create the obstruction.[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l]

⑤Post-alveolars(后齿龈音):consonants pronounced by bringing the tip of the tongue to the rear part of the alveolar ridge（牙槽嵴后面部分）[r] [tr] [dr]

⑥Alveo-palatals（齿龈硬腭音）：consonants formed by putting the tongue at the very front part of the hard palate(硬腭)，near the alveolar ridge(牙槽嵴).[?] [?] [t?] [d?]

⑦palatals（上颚音）:consonants formed by bringing the back of the tongue to the hard palate.

[c][J][j]

⑧velars(软腭音):consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the soft palate（软腭）.[k] [g] [?]

⑨Glottals(声门音):sounds produced by bringing the vocal cords（声带）momentarily（随时地）together to create the obstruction. Include a glottal stop（喉塞音）[?] and a glottal fricative（喉擦音）. [h]

4）The manner of articulation（发音方法）:

定义：refers to the manner in which obstruction is created.

根据发音方法，英语的辅音可分为：

①Stops 破音:sounds produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then

suddenly releasing（释放）it . [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

分为：plosives 爆破音（oral stops）and nasals 鼻腔音（nasal stops）.

nasal stops：[m][n][?]

oral stops：[p] [b] [t] [d] [c][J] [k] [g].etc

②Fricatives摩擦音:the airstream is not completely stopped but is obstructed from flowing

freely.The passage is so narow that the air causes friction（摩擦）.

[θ][e][s][z][?]

③Affricates破擦音: first stop the airstream and then immediately release it slowly.

[t?] [d?] [tr] [dr].

④Liquids流音:there is some obstruction of the airstream in the mouth，but not enough to

cause friction（摩擦）. [l][r]

Note：[r] which is als0 called retroflex(卷舌音) or central liquid（中流音）[l] which is also called lateral or lateral liquid(旁流音)

⑤Glides滑音: produce with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth.

[w],[j] which are also called semivowels(半元音)

图表参考P33

3.3.2 Classification of vowels 元音分类

（1）the state of the velum 软腭状态：

Vowels can be divided into two kinds：oral vowels口腔元音and nasal vowels鼻腔元音. When the soft palate is raised against the back of the throat（喉咙）, oral vowels is produced: pit,pet, cat at.

When the velum is lowered so that the airstream can get into the nasal cavity, nasal vowels are produced: pin, pen, can am.

Nasal vowels are marked by a diacritical mark(变音符号)

（2）the position of the tongue舌位：

①the degree of the height to which the tongue is raised when producing a vowel

②the part of the tongue which is involved in（参与）producing a vowel.

图标参考P34

●前元音、央元音、后元音、高元音、中元音、低元音

High vowels高元音：[i:, i, u:, u]

Mid vowels中元音：[e, ??? ?? ??]

Low vowels低元音：[?, ?, ?, , ?]

Front vowels前元音：[i:, i, e, ?, ?, ?]

Central vowels央元音：[?? ??]

Back vowels后元音：[u:, u, ?, , ?]

（3）the openness of the mouth开口度:分四种

close vowels:闭元音：[i:],[i],[u:]and [u]

semi-close vowels:半闭元音：[e] and [??]

semi-open vowel:半开元音：[?] and [ ?]

open vowel:开元音：[?], [?],[ ] and [ ?]

（4）the shape of lips 唇形：两种

rounded vowels VS unrounded vowels

[u:], [u], [ :] and [ ]是圆唇元音，其余为不圆唇元音

（5）the length of vowels元音的长短:

long vowels: [a:] [u:] [i:]

Short vowels: [i] [u]

长元音以”:”表示，如：[u:]

（6）the tension of the muscles at pharynx(咽) 咽部肌肉紧张状态

All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels，[e]is a tense vowel as well，and the rest short vowels are lax vowels. 所有长元音以及短元音[e]都是紧元音，其余为松元音。Diphthongs and triphthongd

3.3.3diphthongs and triphthongs 双元音和三合元音

the above-discussed vowels are all monophthongs（pure vowels、simple vowels）. In english，there are altogether eight diphthongs（complex vowels），which are prouduced by moving from one vowel positon to another through intervening positions通过中间位置. The diphthongs can be further divided into two sub-groups：centering diphthongs（[i?, ??, u?]）and closing diphthongs（[ei], [ai], [ i], [?u] and [au]）除了以上为单元音（monophthongs、pure vowels、simple vowels）以外，英语中还有8个双元音（diphthongs），其中3个集中双元音（centering diphthongs）（[i?, ??, u?]），5个合口双元音（closing diphthongs）（[ei], [ai], [ i], [?u] and [au]）。

triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. They include [ei?], [ai?], [ i?], [?u?] and [au?]

三合元音是那些是由从一个元音滑到到另一个元音位置,然后迅速而持续地给第三个元音。

3.4 Coarticulation & IPA（international phonetic alphabet）协同发音和国际音标

3.4.1 coarticulation(协同发音): the process of simultaneous and overlapping articulation of speech sounds. “pen’,

协同发音：指在实际话语过程中语音持续受邻近音影响，发生同时或重合发音的过程，分逆化协同发音和重复性协同发音。

3.4.2 IPA

The phonetic alphabet is a system of letters and symbols that are used to represent t he individual sounds of a language.音标是用来表示语言中单个声音的字母和符号的系统,。

The IPA was originally developed by British and French phoneticians under the auspiced of the International Phonetic Association，established in Paris in1886.“国际音标”（简称IPA）是1888年由国际语音协会以当时的偶中音标表编造出来的标音系统。

Within the system of IPA，one symbol stands for one sound and every symbol has a consistent phonetic value, 72 symbols for consonants, 25 for vowels.根据国际音标，一个符号代

表一个声音并且每个符号有一个一致的语音价值,72个辅音，25个元音。

IPA: International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会)

3.4Phonetic features 语音特征

除了传统的描述语音的方法之外，我们也通过语音特征来区分和描述辅音或者元音。在区分语音时，我们常用+或–值来表示。

3.5.1Phonetic features for consonants 辅音的语音功能详见P36

(1)±voiced: [h] is voiceless

(2)±nasal鼻音的:

(3)±consonantal辅音的:

(4)±vocalic元音的:

(5)±continuant连续音的:

(6)±anterior前部音的:

(7)±coronal舌面音的:

(8)±aspirated送气音的:

3.5.2 Phonetic features for vowels 元音的语音功能

高低前后圆唇紧，详见P37

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1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of