专业英语翻译1
第二课1）An atom's nucleus can be split apart。 When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is released。The energy is both heat and light energy。Einstein said that a very small amount of matter contains a very large amount of energy。This energy, when let out slowly, can be harnessed to generate electricity。When it is let out all at once, it can make a tremendous explosion in an atomic bomb. 原子核能够分裂。当原子核分裂完，将会释放巨大的能量。这些能量既有热能也有光能。爱因斯坦说过一个很小的物质也包含了很大的能量。当这些能量被缓慢的释放时，可以用来发电。当这些能量被迅速的释放时，那么能产生原子弹中的巨大的爆炸。
2）A nuclear power plant (As shown in Fig.3.6 ) uses uranium as a "fuel。" Uranium is an element that is dug out of the ground many places around the world.。It is processed into tiny pellets that are loaded into very long rods that are put into the power plant's reactor.核电站使用铀作燃料。铀是一种在世界各地的许多地方都能挖出的一种元素。它被加工成装载在很长棒中的小环然后在
投放在核电站的反应堆中。3）The word fission means to split apart.。Inside the reactor of an atomic power plant, uranium atoms are split apart in a controlled chain reaction.这个单词裂变意思就是分裂。在原子
核电站反应堆中，铀原子在控制链反应中分裂。4）In a chain reaction, particles released by the splitting of the atom go off and strike other uranium atoms splitting those。Those particles given off split still other atoms in a chain reaction, in nuclear power plants, control rods are used to keep the splitting regulated so it doesn't go too fast.在链式反应中，铀原子爆裂释放出来的粒子离开铀原子并且撞击其他铀原子分裂成粒子。在链式反应中这些被释放的粒子继续爆裂其他的原子在核电站中，为了控制链式反应的速度过快经常用控制杆来保持爆裂规律。第三课1）Some of the energy we can use is called renewable energy。Renewable energy sources include solar energy, which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat。Wind, geothermal energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and hydropower and ocean energy from water are also renewable energy sources.。These types of energy are constantly being renewed or restored.我们使用的一些能源叫做可再生能源。可再生能源的来源包括来自于太阳并且能够转换成电能和热能的的
太阳能。风能，来自地球内部的地热能植物的生物能，来自于水的水电能和海洋能都是可再生能源。这些类型的能源能够不断的更新和恢
复。2）For example, solar thermal energy involving the collection of solar rays through collectors (often times huge mirrors) need large tracts of land as a collection site。This impacts the natural habitat, meaning the plants and animals that live there。The environment is also impacted when the buildings, roads, transmission lines and transformers are built。The fluid most often used with solar thermal electric generation is very toxic and spills can happen. 例如利用收集器来收集太阳能射线产生的太阳热能时需要大片的土地作为收集场地。之这就影响了动植物生存的自然栖息地。当修建建筑物、传输线、公路、变压器时环境也将受到破坏。大多数使用在生产太阳能电力的流体是有剧毒的并且
经常泄露。3）Producing geothermal electricity from the earth's crust tends to be localized.。That means facilities have to be built where geothermal energy is abundant。 In the course of geothermal production, steam coming from the ground becomes very caustic at times, causing pipes to corrode and fall apart。Geothermal power plants sometimes cost a little bit more than a gas-fired power plant because they have to include the cost
to drill. 从地壳成产地热能发电已经趋向于局部化。就意味着设备必须建立在地热能充足的地方。再生产地热的反应过程中来自于地表的热能有时具有腐蚀性，可以引起管路的腐蚀或破碎。地热电站的费用通常比燃
气电站的费用高，因为其中包含钻井的费用。第五课1)Walking-beam reheating furnace is an important device with lots of energy consumption in steel plants。 It is important to improve the heating quality of slab and reduce the energy consumption as much as possible.。In current system, the emphasis is often put on the heating quality while the energy saving is seldom taken into account.。Because of high nonlinearity large time delay large time-constant and various uncertain factors, the modeling and reliable control of a reheating furnace are always challenging problems。During the past decade，the challenge has attracted considerable attention and a significant progress has been made in the furnace control。
To obtain the requirement of temperature tracing accuracy and develop energy saving technique in the reheating furnace system, advanced control strategies are needed。In this paper, a model-based predictive control method, multivariable constrained control (MCC), was used。 It treated the furnace as a multi-input-multi-output system and used the predefined temperature trajectories as a priori。The simulation results show that the strategy is very satisfactory. 在钢厂中步进式加热炉是能量消耗的最主要的设备。改变板层的加热质量和尽可能的减少能量消耗是重要的。在现今的系统中，通常把加热质量放在最主要的位置而忽略了能量消耗。由于高度非线性的大的迟滞和大的时间常数和许多不确定的因素，建模和可控制的加热炉经常要挑战许多问题。在过去的十年间，这些挑战得到了巨大的关注并且在加热炉中取得了巨大的进步。在再热炉系统中为了获得所需求的温度跟踪精度和发展节能技术，应该使用高级的约束控制。在本文中基于模型预测控制方法，多变量约束控制被使用。这种控制方法把加热炉看作是多输入多输出的系统。并且预先确定温度精度为给定值。这种假设结果表
示这种策略是非常令人满意的。
2Multivariable advanced process control (APC) techniques have been gradually accepted in process industries, which pursue high product quality and lower cost, and have increased environmental responsibility。APC is usually model based and regulates the processes with optimization algorithms 。 In APC, it can usually improve the control of a process significantly by minimizing the variation in the controlled process variables, dealing with interaction among process variables and automatically controlling set-points of PID loops, which would be normally regulated by operators。 In this paper, a new APC-multivariable constraint control (MCC) is proposed for the advanced control of the reheating furnace.。Its kernel algorithm is derived from model predictive control (MPC), which has been greatly developed in recent 20 years, and has almost become the accepted standard for constrained multivariable control problems in the process industries.。Here at each sampling time, starting at the current state, an open loop optimal control problem is solved over a finite horizon.。At the next time step the computation is repeated starting from the new state and over a shifted horizon，leading to a moving
horizon policy。多变量高级控制技术已经在过程工业中被广泛的接受。它追求高的产品质量和较低的消耗并已相应的提高了环保的责任感。APC是基于模型的并用先进算法调整的控制技术。运用APC可以通过缩小控制过程变量的变化范围、处理过程变量之间的关系并且自动控制PID循环的正常情况下人工控制的设定点来显著地提高的对过程的控制。在本章中，我们为再热锅炉的高级控制提出了一个新的APC多约束控制系统。它的核心算法是从MPC控制中派生出来的。MPC 控制技术在最近20年里得到了极大的发展，并已经成为在过程过程工业中对多变量多约束控制的执行标准。在每个采样时间内，从当前状态开始，最佳开环控制问题将在有限的范围内被解决。在下一个时
间步，计算将在优先的范围内从新状态开始重复。第六课1）In this experiment, the effectiveness of each heat exchanger is at the heart of the decision of which one would be the best choice for a given industrial application.。The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is the efficiency with which the exchanger transfers heat from the hot stream to the cold stream, or in the case of a cooler, how well a cold stream can cool a hot stream。 It is of great importance because it dictates the requirements of the hot or cold utilities, which can sometimes be quite costly.在实验中，对一个给定的工业应用各种换热器的有效性是决定是否选择该换热器的核心。换热器的热效率指的是换热器从热流到冷流传热的效率。或者在叫冷的情况下，如何良好的用一个流冷却一个热流。热效率是非常重要的，因为它规定热和冷设备的要求，又是这样换热器的成本是非常高的。
2）The effectiveness depends on the rate at which heat is transferred from one fluid to the other。The heat is transferred by convection from the hot fluid to the tube wall。It travels through the tube wall by conduction, and then to the cold fluid by convection once again。The rate at which heat is transferred by convection depends on the heat transfer coefficient, h, of that fluid。The greater the heat transfer coefficient, the easier the heat moves from one fluid to the other。 For conduction, the ease with which heat is conducted is shown by the thermal conductivity, k, of the material.热效率取决于热量从一种流体转换到其他流体时的流速。热量以对流的方式从热流体转换到管墙。以传热的形式流经管墙，再以对流的形式从管墙转换到冷流体。以对流的方式转换热量的速率取决于流体的对流换热系数h。换热系数h越大，热量就越容易从一种流体转移到另一种流体。
对于热传导，传热速率取决于管材导热系数k。
3)Heat exchanger effectiveness is also dependent on the nature of the material the exchanger is built out of 。 Some materials conduct heat better than others, so it is essential to have a material with a high thermal conductivity in order to have good transfer of heat from one fluid to the other。 The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is also dependent on the fluids flowing through the tubes.。The specific heats and the flow rates have a significant effect on the rate of heat transferred, so it is also of interest.换热器的热效率也取决于制造换热器材料的性能。一些材料的导热性比其他材料要好，所以为了使热量较好的从一种流体转换到另一种流体，有必要选择一种高导热性的材料。换热器的热效率也取决于流经管道的流体。流体的比热和流速对于传热的速率有
很重要的影响，所以流体的性质也很重要。
第七课1)There are, however, two major aspects of fluid mechanics which differ from solid-body mechanics。The first is the nature and properties of the fluid itself, which are very different from those of a solid。 The second is that, instead of dealing with individual bodies or elements of known mass, we are frequently concerned with the behavior of a continuous stream of fluid, without beginning or end.然而，流体力学区别于固体力学有两个重要的方面。这第一个方面是流体本身不同于固体的性质和属性。第二个区别，流体力学通常涉及到的是无始终的连续
的流束的性质，而不是处理以知质量的单个单元。
2)Knowledge and understanding of the basic principles and concepts of fluid mechanics are essential in the analysis and design of any system in which a fluid is the working medium.。Many applications of fluid mechanics make it one of the most vital and fundamental of all engineering and applied scientific studies。The flow of fluids in pipe and channels makes fluid mechanics importance to civil engineers。 The study of fluid machinery such as pumps, fans, blowers, compressors turbines, heat exchangers, jet and rocket engines, and the like, makes fluid mechanics of importance to mechanical engineers。Lubrication is an area of considerable importance in fluid mechanics。The flow of air over objects, aerodynamics, is of fundamental interest to aeronautical and space engineers in the design of aircraft, missiles and rockets.。In meteorology,
hydrology and oceanography the study of fluids is basic since the atmosphere and the ocean are fluids. And today in modem engineering many new disciplines combine fluid mechanic with classical disciplines.。For example, fluid mechanics and electromagnetic theory are studied together as magnetogasdynamics, in new types of energy conversion devices and in the study of stellar and ionospheric phenomena, magnetogasdynamics is vital.在分析和设计以流体为工作介质的系统中流体力学的知识和基本理念和概念的理解是非常重要的。许多流体力学的应用使它成为在所有的工程和应用科学研究的至关重要和最基础的。在运输管道中流体流动使得流体力学成为民用建筑的重要部分。流体机械的研究像泵、风扇、吹风机、压缩式涡轮机、换热器、喷射器和火箭引擎等等都是的流体力学成为机械工程重要的部分。在流体力学中润滑是很重要的领域。空气中物体的流动，空气动力学，是航空航天工程师在设计飞机、导弹、和火箭发射的基本利益。在气象学、水文学、海洋学、流体的研究是基本，即使大气和海洋都是流体。现今，在现代工程中许多新的学科是流体力学和古典学科的结合。例如，流体力学和电磁理论一起作为磁气体力学来研究，在新类型的能量转换的研究设备以及恒星和电离层的现象的研究中磁气体力学
动力学是至关重要的。
3)On the contrary, the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
in U.S.A. is evidence of the possible consequences of neglecting the basic principles of fluid mechanics.。On a memorable day in November 1940, Nature decided to teach us all a lesson.。The wind could not even be considered strong on that
day, but it happened to disturb the great Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge cyclically with a frequency close to the bridge’s natural frequency of vibration。The entire bridge started to dance.。Traffic was stopped; and an astonished public watched the bridge dance itself to pieces.相反的是，美国塔克马大桥的倒塌就是忽视流体机械基本原则的一个可能后果的证据。在1940年纪念日那一天，自然决定给我们一个教训。那天的风甚至称不上大，但却碰巧破坏了壮观的塔克马悬索桥仅仅是因为风的频率而引起的共振。整个大桥开颤动。交通被禁止，很多震惊的群众看到了
大桥把自己震动解体成碎片。第八课1）Most gas-turbine engines (Fig.3.11)include at 1east a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine.。These are usually mounted as an integral unit and operate as a complete
prime mover on a so-called open cycle where air is drawn in from the atmosphere and the products of combustion are finally discharged again to the atmosphere。Since successful operation depends on the integration of all components, it is important to consider the whole device, which is actually an internal-combustion engine, rather than the turbine alone.大多数的汽轮机像表3.11都至少包括一个压缩机、一个燃烧室和一个涡轮机。这些通常都是安装作为一个整体的单位而操作是一个彻底的原动机所谓开始循环而空气从大气中绘制燃烧产物最终又排放到大气中。因为成功的操作取决于这些元件的组合，他对整个装置的考虑是非常重要的，这实际上是一个内燃机而不是单纯的汽轮机。2）Gas turbines were developed primarily for aircraft industry and for internal combustion engine supercharges, now they have played a unique role in electric utility systems.。Because of their relatively low initial cost, compactness and quick starting(they can be on the line at rated load within 30 minutes), the plants are suitable for emergency service and “peaking” service during daily periods of high load demand.燃气轮机主要用于飞机制造业和内燃机的增压，现在在电业系统中扮演一个独一无二的角色。由于他们相对低的初始成本紧凑性和启动速度（他们能够额定载荷线在30分钟内完成）这些装置适用于在日常
高负荷要求的周期下紧急情况维修和峰值维修。
3）Gas turbine plants operate on the Brayton cycle.。 The operating principle of gas turbine is basically as follows: ambient air is drawn into a multistage compressor and is compressed to about 10 times atmospheric pressure。 The compressed air then passes through the combustion chamber where the preheated fuel is injected and burned.。The products of combustion enter the turbine and expand to approximately atmosphere pressure.。The turbine section powers both the
generator and compressor. 燃气轮机装置操作是一个布雷顿循环。燃气轮机的工作原理主要是这样的：环境中的空气被一个多级压缩机吸收然后被压缩到十倍大气压。压缩的气体进入到燃烧室，在这里预热的燃料被喷射和燃烧。燃烧产物进入到汽轮机后膨胀到接近大气压。汽轮机的部分驱动有发电
机和压缩机。4）About two-thirds of the turbine output is used to drive the compressor while the remainder is for power generation。 This
arrangement is called the simple cycle gas turbine, which is characterized, by large exhaust energy loss.。In general, the simple-cycle gas turbine has relatively low efficiency(25 to 30%)as compared with coal-fired steam turbine system.。The efficiency of simple cycle can be increased by installing a recuperator or waste heat boiler to the turbine's exhaust part.。A recuperator captures waste heat in the turbine exhaust stream to preheat the compressor discharge air before it enters the combustion chamber。 A waste heat boiler generates steam by capturing heat form the turbine exhaust.。These boilers are known as heat recovery steam generators (HRSG)。 They can provide steam for heating or industrial processes, which is called cogeneration.。High-pressure steam from these boilers can also generate power with steam turbines, which is called a combined cycle (steam and combustion turbine operation).。Recuperators and HRSGs can increase the gas turbine's overall energy cycle efficiency up to 80%.。The combined-cycle plant is shown in Fig 3.12。大约三分之二的汽轮机的输出被用于驱动压缩机然而剩余的部分用来发电。这个布置叫做简单循环燃气轮机，以大量的排气和能量损失为特征。总的来说，和燃煤汽轮机相比简单循环燃气轮机有相对低的热效率。低的循环效率可以通过在汽轮机尾部安装一个回热式换热器或一个废热锅炉来提高。一个恢复装置捕获废热在汽轮机排流预热之前使空气排出进入燃烧室。一个废热锅炉产生的蒸汽扑火热量形成汽轮机的驱动力。这样的锅炉叫做回热式蒸汽锅炉。它们可以提供蒸汽用来加热和工业生产，这种方式叫做热电联产。从这些锅炉中出来的高压蒸汽也可以用于蒸汽轮机发电，这种叫做组合式循环。回热式换热器和回热蒸汽锅炉可以使燃气轮机全部热量循
环效率提升80% 。这个联合循环装置见图3.12 第十章1）In fire tube boilers, the combustion gases pass inside boiler tubes, and heat is transferred to water on the shell side.。Scotch marine boilers are the most common type of industrial fire tube boiler。 The Scotch marine boiler is an industry workhorse due to low initial cost, and advantages in efficiency and durability.。Scotch marine boilers are typically cylindrical shells with horizontal tubes configured such that the exhaust gases pass through these tubes, transferring energy to boiler water on the shell side.在火管锅炉里，燃烧气体在锅炉管道中通过，热量在壳程内传给了。苏格兰式船用锅炉是应用最广
泛的典型工业火管锅炉。由于低的最初花费，在效率和耐久性的优势，苏格兰式船用锅炉是工业的重负荷机器。苏格兰式船用锅炉是一种典型的配置有水平管道的圆柱形壳体，因此排出的气体通过这些管子，
在壳体侧面把能量转移给锅炉中的水。2）Scotch marine boilers contain relatively large amounts of water, which enables them to respond to load changes with relatively little change in pressure.。However, since the boiler typically holds a large water mass, it requires more time to initiate steaming and more time to accommodate changes in steam pressure.。Also, Scotch marine boilers generate steam on the shell side, which has a large surface area, limiting the amount of pressure they can generate。 In general, Scotch marine boilers are not used where pressures above 300 psig are required.。Today, the biggest fire tube boilers are over 1,500 boiler horsepower.苏格兰式船用锅炉含有相当多的水，这使得它们能够在压力变动很小的情况下应对较大的负荷变化。然而，由于锅炉含水质量很大，初始化蒸气和适应蒸汽压力变化的时间较长。并且，苏格兰船用锅炉在壳程产生蒸汽，壳程有很大的表面积，这限制了它所产生的蒸汽的压力。总的来说，当需用压力高于300psig的时候，苏格兰船用锅炉就不被应用了。当今，最大的火管锅炉已超过1500
锅炉马力。3）Fire tube boilers are often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times the combustion (or flue) gases flow the length of the pressure vessel as they transfer heat to the water。 Each pass sends the flue gases through the tubes in the opposite direction.。To make another pass, the gases turn 180 degrees and pass back through the shell.。The turnaround zones can be either dry-back or water-back.。In dry-back designs, the turnaround area is refractory lined.。In water-back designs, this turnaround zone is water-cooled, eliminating the need for the refractory lining.火管锅炉的特点就是它的管程数，程数指的是当烟气与水换热时流过压力导管长度的次数。每一程燃烧气体都以相反的方向流过导管。为了实现下一程，气体转过180°，重新流过管程。气体转弯的区域可以是干背或者湿背的。在干背式设计下，转弯区域是耐火衬里的。在湿背设计下，转弯区域是水冷的，消除了对耐火衬里的需要。
4)In water tube boilers, boiler water passes through the tubes while the exhaust gases remain in the shell side, passing over
the tube surfaces.。Since tubes can typically withstand higher internal pressure than the large chamber shell in a fire tube, water tube boilers are used where high steam pressures (as high as 3,000 psig) are required.在水管锅炉里，锅炉水经过管时废气仍然保持在通过管的表面壳的一面。由于管道通常比大的火罐壳室承受比较高的内部压力，在高压蒸气被要求时，水管锅炉被应用。
5)Water tube boilers are also capable of high efficiencies and can generate saturated or superheated steam。 The ability of water tube boilers to generate superheated steam makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry, high-pressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation. 水管锅炉通常具有较高的效率并且能够产生过热蒸汽。水管锅炉具有产生过热蒸汽的能力使得这些锅炉在需要干的、高压的、高能的蒸汽，包括汽轮机发电机组的应用方面有很强烈
的吸引。
6)The performance characteristics of water tube boilers make
them highly favorable in process industries, including chemical manufacturing, pulp and paper manufacturing, and refining.。Although fire tube boilers account for the majority of boiler sales in terms of units, water-tube boilers account for the majority of boiler capacity.水管锅炉的性能特征使得它们在过程工业方面有很好的应用，包括化工制造业、造纸厂和精炼方面。虽然火管锅炉在单位方面所占有大多数的销售额，但是水管锅炉
在锅炉容量上占有较大比例。第十一章1)The most common source of corrosion in boiler systems is dissolved gas: oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia.。Of these, oxygen is the most aggressive.。The importance of eliminating oxygen as a source of pitting and iron deposition cannot be over-emphasized.。Even small concentrations of this gas can cause serious corrosion problems.在锅炉系统中，腐蚀的常见的主要来源是不溶性气体：氧气、二氧化碳、氨气。在这些气体中，氧气是最强烈的。在怎么重视消除氧气铁的点蚀和沉积的来源的重要性，也不为过。即使是少量的这种气体也能引起严重的腐蚀问题。
2)One of the most serious aspects of oxygen corrosion is that
it occurs as pitting。This type of corrosion can produce failures even though only a relatively small amount of metal has been lost and the overall corrosion rate is relatively low.。The degree of oxygen attack depends on the concentration of
dissolved oxygen, the pH and the temperature of the water.氧化腐蚀最为严重的一方面是它将产生点。这种类型的腐蚀即使是只有相对少量的金属损失和相对较低的腐蚀率也能产生破坏性。氧化腐
蚀的程度取决于溶解氧的浓度、ph值和水温。
3)The influence of temperature on the corrosivity of dissolved
oxygen is particularly important in closed heaters and economizers where the water temperature increases rapidly。Elevated temperature in itself does not cause corrosion。Small concentrations of oxygen at elevated temperatures do cause severe problems。 This temperature rise provides the driving force that accelerates the reaction so that even small quantities of dissolved oxygen can cause serious corrosion.溶解氧的腐蚀性对于温度的影响是相当重要的，尤其是水温迅速增长的加热器和省煤器。升高温度本身是不能引起腐蚀的。低浓度的氧气在升高温度时也会造成严重的问题。温度的升高对加速反应提供了驱动力，因此，即便是很少量的溶解氧也可以造成严重的腐蚀。
第十二课1)Many residential heating systems consist of a stove, a heat pump, or an electric resistance heater, The air in these systems is heated by circulating it through a duct that contains the tubing for the hot gases or the electric resistance wires, as shown in Fig 3.19.。The amount or moisture in the air remains constant during this process since no moisture is added to or removed from the air.。That is, the specific humidity of the air remains constant(ω=constant) during a heating(or cooling) process with no humidification or dehumidification.。Such a heating process will proceed in the direction of increasing dry-bulb temperature following a line of constant specific humidity on the psychrometric chart, which appears as a horizontal line.许多民用加热系统是由一个炉子、一个热泵、电阻加热器组成的这些系统中的空气是通过一个含有管材热气体和电阻线的管子来进行循环加热的如图3.19所示。在这个过程中空气中分子量是保持不变的即没有分子的增加也没有从空气中的转移。这样在加热过程中空气的相对湿度保持不变即没有加湿也没有除湿。这样的加热过程是在恒定的相对湿度线上干球温度增加的方向上进行的，这
条线在温湿图上显示的是一条水平直线。
2)Notice that the relative humidity of air decreases during a
heating process even if the specific humidity ω remains
constant。 This is because the relative humidity is the ratio of the moisture content to the moisture capacity of air at the same temperature, and moisture capacity increases with temperature.。Therefore, the relative humidity of heated air may be well below comfortable levels, causing dry skin, respiratory difficulties, and an increase in static electricity.注意到即使在相对湿度保持恒定的情况下在加热过程中空气的相对湿度也是减少的。这是因为相对湿度是在相同的温度下含水量和含水能力的比值，含水能力随温度的而增加。因此，加热空气的相对湿度远低于舒适水平，也就引起皮肤干燥，呼吸困难、和增
加静电。
3)A cooling process at constant specific humidity is similar to the heating process discussed above, except the dry-bulb temperature decreases and the relative humidity increases during such a process, as shown in Fig.3.20.。Cooling can be accomplished by passing the air over some coils through which a refrigerant or chilled water flows.除了在冷却过程中有干球温度减少和相对湿度增加的情况下，在恒定的相对湿度下冷却过程和上文讨论的加热过程相似，如图3.20所示。冷却过程可以经过线
圈上空气被冷却液后冷却水冷却来完成。第十三课1)Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger。One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell (the shell side).。Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa.。The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side.。In order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, so there are many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use.。This is a great way to conserve energy.不同初始温度的流体流经换热器一种流经管程、一种流经壳程。热量经过管壁有一种流体传递到另一种流体，即从管程到壳程。在壳程和管程中流体既可以是液体也可以是气体。为了有效地传热这就需要大片的传热区域所以就需要许多的管，用这种方法，废热也能被使用。这是一种高效的节能方
法2)Heat exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each side can be called one-phase or single-phase heat exchangers.。Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to heat a liquid to boil
it into a gas (vapor), sometimes called boilers, or cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid (called condensers), with the phase change usually occurring on the shell side.。Boilers in steam engine locomotives are typically large, usually cylindrically-shaped shell-and-tube heat exchangers.。In large power plants with steam-driven turbines, shell-and-tube condensers are used to condense the exhaust steam exiting the turbine into condensate water which can be recycled back to be turned into steam, possibly into a shell-and-tube type boiler.在每一侧只有一种状态的物质（气态或液态）的换热器称为单项换热器。双项换热器可以应用于一种液体使之汽化程气态。这时这种换热器被称作锅炉或是冷凝蒸汽使之成为液体，这种相变通常发生在壳程。在蒸汽火车上的锅炉通常是大型的、圆柱形的管式换热器在有蒸汽驱动汽轮机的大型电厂中管壳式冷凝器用于把从汽轮机出来的废气冷凝成水，冷凝水可以再次循环变成蒸汽，进入管壳式锅炉中。
3)To be able to transfer heat well, the tube material should have good thermal conductivity。 Because heat is transferred from a hot to a cold side through the tubes, there is a temperature difference through the width of the tubes.。Because of the tendency of the tube material to thermally expand differently at various temperatures, thermal stresses occur during operation.。This is in addition to any stress from high pressures from the fluids themselves.。The tube material also should be compatible with both the shell and tube side fluids for long periods under the operating conditions (temperatures, pressures, pH, etc.) to minimize deterioration such as corrosion.。All of these requirements call for careful
selection of strong, thermally-conductive, corrosion-resistant, high quality tube materials, typically metals。 Poor choice of tube material could result in a leak through a tube between the shell and tube sides causing fluid cross-contamination and possibly loss of pressure.为了能够较好的传热，管子的材料应该有较好的导热性能。因为热量是经过管子从热的一面传到冷的一面，在管子的厚度方向存在着温差。由于在不同的温度下管子的热膨胀趋势不同，在运行的过程中产生热应力，加上由于流体本身在高压下产生的应力，为了使腐蚀这样的破坏达到最小管子的材料应该在运行的状态下长期同管程和壳程流体相适应。A 这些所有的要求都要认真的选择坚固的、热性能好的、耐腐蚀性的、
高质量的管子材料，这种材料通常是金属。不好的管子材料的选择可能导致管程和壳程流体之间顺着管子泄露从而导致流体交叉污染也
可能造成压力损失。
第九讲高中英语翻译技巧与能力训练(上)[讲义]
高考英语翻译技巧与能力训练 高考英语中的翻译（中译英）题要求考生能应用所学过的语法和词汇来准确地表达思想，是一种要求相当高的考查形式。要求考生把中文的句子译成通顺的、语法结构正确的、符合英语表达习惯的英语句子，并能准确地传达中文句子中的每一个信息。该题型全面地考查学生英语词汇、语法等知识的综合运用能力，它对学生的动词时态、语态、名词的单复数、冠词、形容词、副词、介词等应用能力，还对学生的词组、句型、句子结构等进行了全面考查。翻译不仅在高考英语主观题中占不小的比例，而且翻译能力还直接影响考生在作文中的表现。 高考评分标准: 1．每题中单词拼写、标点符号、大小写错误每两处扣一分；2．语法错误（包括时态错误）每处扣一分；3．译文没用所给的单词扣一分。 如何才能提高中译英水准，在高考中获得理想的分数呢？考生除了必须具备比较扎实的语言基础外，关键还在于学会总结规律，找准中译英的切入点。 一、分析句子结构、寻找合适的句型 中文必须仔细读，一定要看的就是题目给我们的关键字或关键的词组，也就是我们常说的key words。尤其是最后两句翻译句子，它们大都在句子结构上提高了难度。读什么？读出句子结构：对于简单句，辨别出主谓宾，分清定语、同位语和状语；对于并列句，记住两个语法意义上独立的分句，须由连词连接起来；对于复合句，须区分定语从句，名词性从句以及状语从句。一般来说，中译英的句型可分为三大类：1.简单句；2.并列句；3.复合句；同时我们也要注意非谓语动词及其他一些特殊结构。回顾近几年的高考试题时，也不难发现试题中考了一些特殊句式。如：It句型(近几年考得较为频繁)、倒装句、with结构。 例1: 昨天我的电脑坏了。(wrong) 解析：本题考查：1)简单句There be结构；2)wrong的用法；3)中英文表达的差异。 译句：There was something wrong with my computer yesterday. 例2: 遇到困难的时候，我们需要的不是彼此埋怨，而是互相帮助。(not…but) 解析：本题考查：1)复合句：when引导的状语从句；what引导的主语从句；2)not…but结构；3)“彼此埋怨”的英文翻译。 译句：When(we are)in difficulty/When we meet with difficulties/When we have difficulties ,what we need is not to blame each other but to help each other. 例3：我们能做什么来阻止这种疾病蔓延呢？（prevent） 分析：如果有学生没有读全中文原句的话，就很有可能看成是以前所做的“我们要做些什么来阻止这种疾病的蔓延”，而译为We should do something to prevent the spread of this disease.因为这个原因而造成扣分，就太不应该了。 译句：What can we do to prevent the spread of this disease? 例4：他很有可能通过自己的努力得到驾驶执照。（likely） 译句：He is likely to get the driving license with his own efforts. 分析：有些学生一看到有可能，就会想到自己比较熟悉的possible，想当然地翻译成It is possible that…的结构。其实，学生对likely这个key word的使用也是会的，完全能够使用be likely to do或It’s likely th at…的结构。 例5：上海近几年经历了许多变化，如今已成为世界闻名的经济中心。（go through） 分析：乍一看，学生很容易轻易下笔，Shanghai has gone through…,it has become…，这已成为很多学生的一个习惯，句子和句子中随便用逗号隔开，英语不像中文，必须要考虑到句子的结构，逗号也不能随意使用。而此句中，就要想到用并列句中的连接词and来连接两个成分。
从科技英语翻译(1)
2007年6月 第8卷 第2期 长沙铁道学院学报(社会科学版) J un.2007 Vol.8 No.2 从文体特征谈科技英语的翻译3 禹智华 (中南大学外国语学院,湖南长沙 410075) 摘 要:每一类体栽的文章都有其独特的语言表现形式和结构规律。本文从文体学角度分析了科技英语在其词汇、句法、语篇等方面的特点及对其翻译方法的探讨。 关键词:文体特征;词汇;句法;语篇;翻译 在21世纪这个高度信息化的时代,科技英语越来越受到人们的重视。但对于大多数人而言,翻译科技英语时只是满足于表面的处理,并未研究真正的科学的语言,只是依据为一般读者编写的百科全书或图书中出现的通俗专业介绍。他们认为,只要懂得语法规则和一些科技词汇,就能够理解并翻译科技英语文章了。于是这样一个公式似乎顺理成章:科技英语=一般英语语法+科技词汇。其实不然科技英语它着重于对客观事物的描述,或者对逻辑概念的推理,因而在词汇、句法、语篇等方面有着与通用英语不同的自身特点,形成了独特的文体风格。从它特点看来,我们不仅要注意语法词汇等语言学的部分,同时更要根据英汉两种语言表达上的差异,进行原语与目标语之间的调整,使翻译作品更加符合译入语读者的思维习惯。 一、词汇特点 科技词汇主要由一般词汇、专业词汇和半专业词汇三部分构成,他们具有如下明显特点: 第一,科技词汇多源于希腊语和拉丁语,具有庄重、正式的语体特征,如pharmaceutical(药品)、circumvent(阻止)、mechanical(机械的)、technology(技术)等词汇。这类词一般词形较长,难于记忆,其有效的手段就是通过英语的构词法来掌握,尤其是派生法。主要特点是通过添加前、后缀构成新词,不少科技词汇均由此产生,如mono(单一)———monoxide (一氧化物)、di(二,双)———diatomic(双原子的)、anti(抗,防)———antiage(防老化的)、super(超)———(天体物理学)、under(低于,次于)———underreaction(反应不充分)。 第二,不少动词短语往往由一些“稳重”的规范动词替代,体现了科技英语精炼、严肃、权威的文体特征,如turn on--complete、use up--consume和exhaust、put up with--tolerate。 第三,同一词语词义的多专业化,即同一个英语常用词不仅被多个专业采用,而且含义也各不相同。例如“order”一词,在日常英语指“命令、订购”等,在军事上指“队形”,在计算机领域指“指令”,在法律上指“法院上的决议”,在数学方面指“阶,次序”,建筑学则指“柱型”。对于这一类词语,只有通过上下文和具体的语言环境才能确定其真正的含义。 第四,广泛使用缩略词。据统计,这类词语大约有2～3万,其构成方式分有三种:(1)将词的部分截缩而构成新词,如parachute———chute(降落伞)、semiconductor———semicon (半导体)、technology———tech(技术);(2)将词组中的每个词的首字母加在一起构成新词,如Unidentified Flying Object ———U FO(不明飞行物)、Liquefied Natural Gas———L N G(液化天燃气);(3)从两个单词中抽出部分字母而构成新词,如rectifier transformer———rectiforlner(整流变压器)、telegram exchange telex(电传)。过程。因此,从各方面提高科技翻译工作者的能力及加强对科技翻译的研究,找出其特色也显得尤为重要。 二、句法特点 11被动句的广泛使用 因为科技文章的主要目的是讲述客观现象,介绍科技成果,说明生产过程等,所以无须指出行为的主体,使用被动句不仅比主动句更少主观色彩,而且可以使读者的注意力集中在叙述的客体上,与日常英语相比,科技英语更倾向于使用被动句。英语被动语态句的处理,不外乎两种方法:一种是仍保留为被动句,另一种是转换成汉语的主动句。下面以一些句子进行举例说明。 例如:The outside of the converter is made of steel plates. 转钢炉的外壳由钢板制成。 Electrons closer to the nucleus are held more tightly than those in the outer orbits. 靠近原子核的电子比外层轨道上的电子结合的紧。 21大量使用名词化结构和非谓语动词形式 这种结构和形式能够把原来的施动结构蕴藏在深层结构里,从而把更多的信息融于一体,使彼此的逻辑关系更严密,表达更精确,这符合科技英语追求语言表达简练、凝重、客观与浓缩的要求。例如下面这句话,科技英语借助非谓语动词形式和名词化结构,只用一个谓语动词就表达了汉语须用几个行为动词才能表达清楚的概念。Applied science,on the other hand is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to the practical affairs of life and to increasing man’s control over his environment,thus leading to the development of new techniques processes and machines.应用科学则直接涉及应用问题,它研究的是如何将纯科学的工作定律应用于实际生活,应用于加强人类对其周围环境的控制,从而导致新技术、新工艺和新机器的产生。 31长句较多 2713收稿日期:2006-12-16 作者简介:禹智华(1981-),女,湖南邵阳人,硕士研究生。
各专业的英文翻译
哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws
专业英语翻译
1) Electricity can be measured in amount and quality. 电可以用数量和质量来度量。 2) Instrument transformers are installed on the high-voltage equipment. 互感器安装在高压设备上。 3) Electric power is generated in power generating stations or plants. 电能是在发电站或发电厂产生的。 4) The meters are calibrated and the scale is designed to read the value of the desired unit. 这些仪表可以被校准并且设计了不同的量程，以便读出期望的数值。 5)Electrical energy can be stored in two metal plates separated by an insulation medium. Such a device is called a capacitor, and its ability to store electrical energy is termed capacitance. It is measured in Farads. 电能可以储存在被一绝缘介质隔开的两块金属板中，这样的装置被称为电容器，它储存电能的能力就被称为电容。电容的测量单位是法拉。 1)The signal should be filtered before it is amplified. The signal should be filtered before being amplified. 放大信号前，应先对其进行滤波。 2)An object becomes hot. It is placed in the sun. Once being placed in the sun, an object becomes hot. 物体放置在太阳下会变热。 3)We must do various experiments before a new electronic product is designed. Before designing a new electronic product we must do various experiments. 在设计一个新的电子产品之前，我们必须做各种实验。 4)Changing resistance is a method for controlling the flow of the current. 改变电阻是控制电流的一种方法。 5)Conducting electricity means the flow of electrons through an object. 传导电流意味着电子在物体内的流动。 1)The power supply, which is shown in block-diagram in Fig.1, is a single-phase switch-mode inverter. The power supply shown in block-diagram in Fig.1 is a single-phase switch-mode inverter. 图1中用框图表示的电源是一个单相开关逆变器。 2)A three-phase circuit, as it was pointed out above, is merely a combination of three single-phase circuits. A three-phase circuit, as pointed out above, is merely a combination of three single-phase circuits. 正如上面所指出的那样，三相电路只不过是三个单相电路的组合。 3) The transistor, which is working with correctly polarities, can work as an amplifier. The transistor working with correctly polarities can work as an amplifier. 工作于正确电源极性下的晶体管，作用就像放大器。 1）The capacity of individual generators is larger and larger so that the increasing demand of electric power is satisfied. The capacity of individual generators is larger and larger to satisfy the increasing demand of electric power. 单台发电机的容量越来越大，目的就是满足不断增长的用电需求。 2) What does a fuse do? It protects a circuit. The function of a fuse is to protect a circuit. 保险的作用就是保护电路。
完整word版五年级下册英语翻译1 3单元
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蹈。我经常打扫我的房间在星期六。 罗宾的戏剧P9Readandrite 罗宾在一个戏剧里。他是罗宾森克鲁斯。这是来自他的一封信。我的名字叫罗宾森。我居住在一个岛上。我总是每天早起床。我洗我的脸，然后我吃早饭。有时我也打扫我的山洞。我经常在水中游泳。在下午。我和朋友一起运动。他的名字叫星期五。星期五擅长运动。他经常胜利。 Unit1单词表。吃早饭，上，进行体育运动，活动运动，做早操，吃晚饭，打扫我的房间，散步，去买东西购物，学习上（），跳舞，上舞蹈，需要，戏剧剧本，信，居住，岛，总是一直，山洞洞穴，去游泳，获胜，在（时间）后，开始，通常地惯常地，西班牙，晚迟，午前上午，午后下午，为什么，购物买东西，工作，上一个过去的，听起来像，还（也），忙的 Unit2 favriteseasn P14Let'stal琼斯先生：你喜欢音乐吗，孩子们？迈克：是的。它是美丽的。它是什么？琼斯先生：《四季歌》。今天我们将要画季节。你最喜欢哪个季节？迈克？迈克：冬季。我喜欢雪。琼斯先生：我也喜欢雪。你最喜欢哪个季节，吴一凡？吴一凡：春季，它是美丽的。琼斯先生：是的，它是。 P1Let'slearn春夏秋冬你最喜欢那个季节？夏天。我能每
论文：浅析英语翻译能力提升的障碍和策略
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2．语言基础知识掌握不扎实，影响了翻译的准确性 英语翻译就是英汉两种语言之间的相互转换，在转换的过程中主要涉及两个方面，首先翻译者要正确地领悟原文的意思，其次要通过译文将原文确切的表达出来，达到“信达雅”的标准。因此翻译者需要牢固地掌握英汉两种语言。但是由于多方面的因素，翻译者的语言基础知识掌握不扎实，很多翻译者的词汇量太少，经常背了忘，而又不重视巩固复习，或者死记硬背不会灵活运用，此外，语法掌握也不扎实，对一些基本的句型模棱两可，不能正确理解更不会运用。 二、提升英语翻译能力的具体策略 1．通过词汇、语法和阅读，了解中西文化之间的差异性 在英语的学习中，提高英语翻译能力，不仅要加强英语语言知识的学习，还要注重对英语文化知识的了解。具体来说，可以通过词汇、语法以及阅读等的学习获取英语文化知识。 首先，通过词汇的学习了解中西文化知识。词汇是英语语言的基本元素，掌握词汇的过程中，仅仅注重词汇正确的拼写和准确的发音是远远不够的，更主要的是学会如何恰当的运用词汇和组织词汇。因此，在背诵英语词汇意思的基础之上还需要进一步了解词汇产生的文化背景知识，尤其是了解习语、谚语和成语这一类词语的文化内涵、感情色彩以及
科技英语翻译1
第六章科技英语翻译 English for Science and Technology (EST) 第一部分 Part One Procedures of today: ?An overview of EST ?Characteristics of technical terms （科技英语词汇特点）?Characteristics of the EST syntax （科技英语句法特点） ?Principles of translating EST ?Assignments ?―It appears that you’ve got the offer of a very good job.‖ ―A wonderful job.‖ ―Are you going to take it?‖ ―I don’t think so.‖ ―Why not?‖ ―I don’t want to.‖ ?―听说有个很好的工作要你去干。‖ ?―挺好的工作。‖ ?―打算干吗？‖ ?―不。‖ ?―为什么不干？‖ ?―不想干。‖ ?She was of a helpless, fleshy build, with a frank open countenance and an innocent, different manner. Her eyes were large and patient, and in them dwelt a shadow of distress as only those who have looked sympathetically into the countenances of the distraught and helpless poor know anything about. ?那妇人生着一副绵软多肉的体格，一张坦率开诚的面容，一种天真羞怯的神气。一双大落落的柔顺眼睛，里边隐藏着无穷的心事，只有那些对于凄惶无告的穷苦人面目作过同情观察的人才看得出来。 ?MONTREAL –Clark Johns accomplished a spectacular debut for his NHL career tonight, the first score launching a four-point first period outburst, to lead the Johnson City High Hats to a 6—4 victory over the Montreal Teals and their eighth consecutive game without a loss.
英语翻译专业简历范文
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专业英语翻译
1. Civil engineering，the oldest of the engineering specialties，is the planning，design，construction, and management of the built environment．This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles，from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程，最老的工程专业，是建筑环境的规划、设计、施工和管理。这个环境包括从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施的所有根据科学原理建造的结构物。 2. Civil engineers build roads，bridges，tunnels，dams，harbors，power plants，water and sewage systems，hospitals，schools，mass transit，and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations． 土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电站、水系统和污水系统，医院、学校、公共交通系统，以及现代化社会和大量人口集中的地方所必需的其他公共设施。 3. Computers are a necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project． 计算机对于现代土木工程师而言是必不可少的，因为它们可使工程师高效地处理大量数据，这些数据是在确定最优施工方案时所需要的。 4. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials：steel，concrete，plastic，stone，asphalt，brick，aluminum，or other construction materials． 他们还确定适当的材料组合：钢材、混凝土、塑料、石料、沥青、砖、铝或其他的建筑材料。 5. In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semiliquid wastes, to water, oil, and various types of highly combustible and noncombustible gases. 在土木工程的这个分支里，工程师修建运输液体、气体或固体的管道和相关的设施，运输的物质范围从煤浆和半液体废料到水、石油和不同类型的高燃性和非燃性气体。 6. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work：the surveyors；workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps，excavate for the foundation，build the forms and pour the concrete；and workers who build the steel framework．These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure． 事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动：勘测员、为临时道路和斜坡定线和施工、挖基础、建模和浇注混凝土的工人、以及绑扎钢筋的工人。这些工程师还为建筑业主定期提供进度报告。 7. This art includes，in addition to buildings，all the civil engineering structures such as dams，canals，tunnels，aqueducts，and bridges．
浅议英语翻译能力的培养-文档资料
浅议英语翻译能力的培养 高等学校很注重培养英语专业学生的翻译能力。要具备一定的翻译能力，学生必须具有深厚的语言功底?p广博的文化知识?p熟练的翻译技巧?p正确的翻译观念和严谨的翻译态度。因此，要培养和提高英语专业学生的翻译能力，教师应该从以下几个方面入手。 一?p掌握好汉语和英语的基础知识 翻译是一个语言转换的过程。从根本上讲，这个过程要解决两个问题：一是如何深刻地理解原文；二是如何用译文确切地表达原文的意思。因此，译者要较好地掌握英语和汉语两种语言，具备较强的语言理解能力和表达能力，这是做好翻译的前提条件。 从语言学角度讲，英语和汉语之间最大的区别莫过于形合和意合的区别。英语是重形合的语言，即英语中词语或句子间的连接主要依靠连接词来完成。汉语是重意合的语言，即汉语中词语或句子间的连接主要依靠语义或句子之间的逻辑关系来完成。例如“他今天没来，母亲住院了”（Hedidnotcometodaybecausehis mother was hospitalized），在这个例子中，汉语原文在表达因果关系时，没有使用任何表示因果关系的词汇，但是读者一看就能理解。然而，在翻译成英语的时候，必须加上连接词because，否则就会出现语法错误。二?p积累广博的文化知识 翻译材料涉及面极广，学生要具备渊博的知识。具体来说，文学性的翻译需要学生具备广博的文化知识，科技翻译需要学生具备相关的专业知识。另外，学生还要掌握大量的习语和俚语，这样在翻译时才不会被句子的字面意义所迷惑。如“I decidedto sit at his feet”这句话的字面意思是“我决定坐在他的脚上”，但实际上，“sit at his feet”是一个习语，表示“拜他为师”。 三?p培养严谨的翻译态度 英语和汉语的句子结构复杂，词汇意义也复杂多变，在翻译中出现错误是难以避免的，但是教师应该让学生尽量避免错误，避免粗枝大叶，望文生义。此外，学生在翻译时还应多关注细节，如单词的拼写?p标点符号?p小词等。例如，“中国政府”应该翻译成Chinese government还是the Chinese government这
各专业的英文翻译
中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务，为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence
专业英语翻译
3 Earthquakes Earthquakes is trembling or shaking movement of the Earth’s surface.Most earthquakes are minor https://www.wendangku.net/doc/be13475820.html,rger earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors but rapidly take the form of one or more violent shocks,and end in vibrations of gradually diminishing force called aftershocks.The subterranean point of origin of an earthquake is called its focus;the point on the surface directly above the focus is the epicenter .The magnitude and intensity of an earthquake is determined by the use of scales,e.g.,the Richter scale and Mercalli scale. Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional stress or tensional stress built up at the margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates that make up the Earth’s surface.The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault,or fracture in the Earth’s crust resulting in moving of the opposing blocks of rock past one another.These movements cause vibrations to pass through and around the Earth in wave form,just as ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water.V olcanic eruption,rockfalls,landslides,and explosions can also cause a quake,but most of these are of only local extent. 6 Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that the Earth is about 4,570 million years old.Geologists have divided Earth’s history into a series of time intervals.These time intervals are not equal in length like the hours in a day.Instead the time intervals are variable in length.Different spans of time on the time scale are usually delimited by major geological or paleontological events,such as varying rock type or fossils within the strata and mass extinctions.For example,the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the first appearance of animals with hard parts. The geologic time scale was formulated during 地震 地震颤动或发抖运动的地球表面。大部分地震是轻微地震。大地震通常开始轻微的颤动而迅速采取一个或更猛烈冲击的形式，并最终在逐渐减少振动的力称为余震。地震起源的地下点称为重心；表面上以上的重点是中心点。地震的震级和强度的尺度，确定使用例如，李希特尺度和麦加利震级。 大部分地震是因果关系的压应力或拉应力建立在巨大岩石圈板块的运动，使地球表面的空间。最浅的地震的直接原因是沿断层应力的突然释放，或断裂在地壳导致岩石过去彼此对立块体运动。这些运动引起的振动通过环绕地球以波的形式，就像涟漪时产生一个石子投进水中。火山喷发，崩塌，滑坡，和爆炸也可以引起地震，但这些只是局部性的范围。 证据来自辐射测年表明，地球的年龄大约是4570000000岁。地质学家划分地球历史划分成一系列的时间。这些时间间隔的长度像一天中的时间是不相等的。相反，时间间隔的长度是可变的。时间在时间尺度不同跨度通常是由主要的地质或古生物事件分隔的，如不同的地层和大规模物种灭绝的岩石或化石类型。例如，白垩纪和古近纪是用坚硬的部分动物的第一次出现定义之间的边界。
考研英语怎样提高翻译能力
考研英语：怎样提高翻译能力？ 在英语翻译备考中，许多人总想一步登天，跨考教育英语教研室的孟老师在此着重强调，须知任何能力(包括英语翻译在内)的提升必定要经过反复练习的过程。当然，练习是有方法可循的，比如系统学习翻译的方法、原理、固定句式和译法、多学习比较优秀的译文等等。 要做好翻译其实并不是机械地在大量的词库句库中搜求配对，片面追求字面的精准，而是对信息的传达。这就要求译者不仅对源语言有准确的理解，并且对于目标语言也要有优秀的表达能力。很多时候你能明白一整段的意思，却觉得不能自如组织成书面汉语，是因为其实你的汉语表达能力也不够。 提高汉语表达能力，建议可以从经典作品的译本和各大电影字幕组的翻译作品中学习。前者的翻译作品比较严谨传神;后者则生动俏皮，富有时代气息。在学习这些资料时，并不是说某句英文只有资料里的一种翻译方法，以后碰到这句话就直接照搬照抄译文，资料只是辅助，要学习的是其中的思路和方法。 另外，不要太拘泥于所谓的翻译理论。语法和理论都是随着时代的更迭不断更新的，比如当下不断涌现出的各种新词汇，必须与时俱进。 翻译最重要的一点，就是对文章的理解，要彻底读懂文章想表达的思想，甚至尝试去体会原作者的想法，才能翻译出更贴切、更符合原文的译文。 所以，总结起来，你需要经历三个阶段： 首先，语法学好，能正确理解句子; 第二，接受系统的翻译训练，学会翻译方法; 第三，就在提高汉语能力形成地道的表达 你可以一边学习方法和原理、多加练习，一边做语言功底上的积累，才谓标本兼治的“有效”;至于“快速”，其实是你有多勤奋的问题——假设可以使你熟能生巧、从量变达到质变的那个量是一定的。 现在的你达到那个阶段了呢??? 综上就是小编给大家提供的高分技巧，技巧就是牢固的知识点和强悍的答题思路，预祝所有