跨文化交际中的语用失误分析论文
本科生毕业论文（设计）
题目The Enlightenment of Critical Period Hypothesis on Children’s English Teaching
姓名学号
院系外国语学院专业英语
指导教师职称
年月日
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, who has given me constant and valuable advice, read my drafts through meticulously and offered incisive comments on them. Without her help, the thesis could never have reached its present form.
My sincere gratitude also goes to all my teachers who have given me excellent lectures and great help, which are indispensable to the completion of this thesis. I also give my hearty thanks to all my classmates who have offered generous help and useful suggestions in the process of writing this thesis.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to all the writers whose works have been referred to in this thesis.
随着社会和经济的发展，国际之间的合作与交流不断深入，跨文化交际语用失误已成为语用学和应用语言学研究的一个重要领域。本文从语用学和跨文化交际角度出发，首先回顾了语用学的定义以及跨文化交际和语用学的关系，并且对语用失误概念进行界定和归类;然后，从中西语言和文化差异、语用负迁移、思维方式和言语行为差异、语用原则、分析了跨文化语用失误的原因;最后，通过分析现实生活中出现的语用失误现象，提出在跨文化交际中如何避免语用失误及其对外语教学的启示;总结得出外语教学应该通过文化意识的培养、传统教学理念和教学方法的改革，培养和提高学习者的语用能力和跨文化交际能力。
关键词：跨文化交际；语用失误；语用能力；交际能力；外语教学
With the development of society and economy, the communication cooperation between nations becomes more and more frequent. Pragmatic failure has been one of the heated topics in the field of pragmatics and applied linguistics. From the view of pragmatics and cross-cultural communication, the thesis firstly reviews the definitions of pragmatics and the relationship between pragmatics and intercultural communication. Then, pragmatic failure is defined and classified. At the same time, I probe into the causes of the pragmatic failure from the following aspects as: language and culture differences, negative pragmatic transfer, different thinking patterns and speech behavior, pragmatic principles. Through analyzing many phenomena of pragmatic failures collected from the real life, the thesis finally puts forwards some practical suggestions and implications for foreign language teaching, arriving at the conclusion that foreign language teaching should concentrate on improving the students' intercultural communicative competence and pragmatic competence through the cultivation of students' cultural awareness, reformation of traditional teaching concepts and methods.
Key words:intercultural communication, pragmatic failure, pragmatic competence, communicative competence, EFL teaching and learning
CONTENTS
0. Introduction (1)
1. Literature Review (2)
1.1 Definition of Pragmatics (2)
1.2 Language and Culture (2)
2. Analysis of Pragmatic Failure in Intercultural Communication (3)
2.1 Definition of Pragmatic Failure (3)
2.2 Classifications of Pragmatic Failure (4)
3. Causes of Pragmatic Failure (6)
3.1 Differences in Culture Context (6)
3.2 Negative Pragmatic Transfer (7)
3.3 Differences in Pragmatic Principles (7)
4. Implications for Teaching and Learning (8)
4.1 Cultivation of Student's Cultural Awareness (9)
4.2 Reformation of Traditional Teaching Concepts and Methods (10)
5. Conclusion (11)
Works Cited (13)
0. Introduction
As a communication tool between Chinese people and foreigners, English is one of the most important and popular languages in international communication. Most of Chinese learners of English have learned English learning for many years, but they often find that they still have difficulties in communication with foreigners. students from primary school to university should learn it. For a long time in China, foreign English language teaching has been influenced by structuralism, which results in putting excessive emphasis on language knowledge teaching in classroom and ignoring the language use in real life. The major tasks and aims of classroom teaching are stuffing with English language knowledge such as grammar, vocabulary usages and so on. And the teaching goal is mainly examination-oriented.
How to solve the problem and take measures to change the current situation of English learning and teaching in China still remains a hot issue. In the recent years, the pragmatic knowledge and awareness is becoming more and more important in the language teaching, especially in the college English teaching. Language, culture, and communication influence each other. Cultural differences are the basic causes of pragmatic failure in intercultural communication. Culture is the inner core of language . The culture information carried by language is the premise of correctly using language.
The analysis of intercultural pragmatic failure in communication holds important implications for EFL teaching and learning. The main purpose of learning a foreign language is communication, and the college English syllabus should give part of their attention to the communication and it is better to add culture language knowledge to college English syllabus.The goal of EFL and English teaching and learning should set on the developing college students' communicative competence, so as to help them achieve the goals of successful inter-cultural communication. One of the goals and targets for the teaching of college English is to promote the communicative competence to meet the communication needs.
1. Literature Review
1.1 Definition of Pragmatics
The term "pragmatics" was first put forward by American philosopher Charles Morris in the book Foundation of the Theory of Signs, in which he distinguished three distinct branches: syntactic (or syntax), semantics and pragmatics. Pragmatics was not recognized as an independent subject in linguistics until 1977 when the Journal of Pragmatics was published in Holland. In the study field of pragmatics, linguists carry out researches from different aspects and define it from different perspectives. Therefore the definitions of pragmatics are given in different angles.
Pragmatics is the study of the relations between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding (Levinson 1983).
Pragmatics is a study of how language is used in communication (Leech 1983) Pragmatics is the study of the relationship between linguistic forms and the users of those forms (Yule 2000).
Pragmatics is the science of language seen in relation to its users (May 1993).
From the statements above, it shows that though pragmatics is defined in different perspectives, the explanations are generally the same. Pragmatics is study of how to interpret the meaning of utterances and how to appropriately use language to conduct communication in a particular context. It is especially concerned with appropriateness and the situation the language used.
1.2 Language and Culture
As to the relationship between culture and language, they tie up with each other but differ from each other. "A language is a part of culture and a culture is a part of language. The two are interwoven intricately so that one cannot separate the other without losing the significance of either language or culture. Thus no language can be separated from its social and cultural environment"(Brown 1987: ?). Language and
culture are interdependent and they complement each other.Broadly speaking, every utterance occurs in its cultural context. However, language is merely a part of culture, an aspect of culture, not the whole. Some cultures embody themselves in objects such as the necessities of daily life, which are not concerned with language in a direct way.
So it is believed that without language, there is no culture and without culture, language will lose its all meanings and vanish in the end. The intimate relation between language and culture determines that in the process of language learning more stress should be laid upon cultural elements. As a result, intercultural misunderstandings occur due to the differences between different languages and cultures. Language does not always convey the same message to people from different culture though the words are the same. Cultural background provides its context for interpretation. Therefore, language, as an integral part of culture, can only be really understood on condition that the culture is understood.
2. Analysis of Pragmatic Failure in Intercultural Communication
2.1 Definition of Pragmatic Failure
In intercultural communication, people often meet such problems as they often cannot understand the meaning of the sentences, while the sentences have no grammatical mistakes. For example, an American talked with a Chinese interpreter, a young lady who has graduated from one Chinese university: “Your English is excellent.” The Chinese lady responded, “No, no. My English is quite poor.” Then the American appeared apparently a bit puzzled. Linguists call this kind of phenomenon “ pragmatic failure”. Thomas (1983:96) defines the pragmatic failure as “the inability to understand what is meant by what is said”. In intercultural communication there are many factors that can influence people's communication such as ways of thinking, rules of speaking and behaving, social values. When people from different cultures communicate, they may encounter communicative failure due to cultural differences.
As we all know, communication is an interactive process, and pragmatic failure
is involved with both participants in communication. From our daily experience, we know that sometimes even persons in the same culture make pragmatic failures because they don't have enough information about what is talking about or because one doesn't have the other's experiences or background. Therefore, it is better to define pragmatic failure as follows: The communicative failure is caused by the two parties of communication misunderstanding or inappropriately expressing verbal or nonverbal information because of the lack of the competence of correctly understanding communicative information or efficiently using language in communication. Pragmatic failure can not only take place in different cultures but in the same culture. As pragmatic failure mostly happens between cultures, this essay will lay more emphasis on intercultural pragmatic failure, especially the intercultural pragmatic failure between the Chinese and western cultures.
2.2 Classifications of Pragmatic Failure
It is usually believed that pragmatic failure is divided into two types, which are pragmatic failure and social pragmatic failure. However, most scholars also have ignored an important aspect of一pragmatic failure, which is nonverbal pragmatic failure. In fact, pragmatic failure also exists in nonverbal communication, which refers to the error that occurs because of misinterpretation of the nonverbal signals. So pragmatic failure should be classified into three types: pragmatic linguistic failure, social pragmatic failure and nonverbal pragmatic failure.
Pragmatic linguistic failure is related to the inappropriate expression of language, or misunderstanding of the other's utterance. It is related with the language itself. Pragmatic failure arises when non-native speakers mapped the pragmatic force onto a
given utterance and the force is systematically different from that of target language, or when speech act strategies are inappropriately transferred from one language to another language. Even when two languages share the same expression way but use it in different situations, such kind of failures arise. Pragmatic linguistic failure has to
do with the inappropriate use of linguistic forms and is considered relatively easy to overcome.
Social pragmatic failure refers to the misunderstanding caused by the social conditions placed on language in use which are very difficult to influence or change. Social pragmatic failure mainly stems from social pragmatic mismatches. The diversity in social value systems, language and cultural norms always makes the communication poorly interpreted. Thus, it's inevitable to misunderstand one's intention and it is much subtler and more difficult to deal with. Social pragmatic failures are due to the different social values between Chinese and westerners, which are related to the beliefs, customs, concepts of the world and other culture-oriented factors. Without adequate cultural knowledge background and experiences, the communicators cannot identify them at all.
The nonverbal behavior consciously or unconsciously conveys messages and it's an important symbol system. Nonverbal behavior can be used to express attitudes, feelings and emotions. Since communication includes verbal and nonverbal ones, pragmatic failure in nonverbal communication cannot be ignored. Actually nonverbal communication exists everywhere. The messages of action, space, time, and silence, the clothes they wear, and how close they stand to each other and whether they touch each other... All messages communicate. It is generally accepted that the interaction between people is made by combining verbal and nonverbal communication, which are complementary to each other. Different social group has different ways of making nonverbal communication. When people converse with each other, they communicate using facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, the use of space and time and other body movements besides words. Appropriate use of nonverbal behavior contributes to effective communication, while inappropriate use of them brings about pragmatic failure because nonverbal behavior is rooted in culture.
3.1 Differences in Culture Context
Intercultural communication involves interaction between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol system are distinct enough to affect the communication process. Although all cultures share a common set of components including history,religion, values, social organizations and language, these components often distinguish one culture from another. Each of us has the unique individual values, and these values tend to reflect the culture. An awareness of cultural values helps us appreciate the behavior of people from other cultural background. Chinese people have a completely different value system from native English speakers. Chinese people value tradition,but some westerners dispose it and consider it as "old", "rusty" or "something to be thrown away". Chinese people tend to express their feelings in an indirect way and they think highly of modesty and collectivism while westerners place high value on independence, individualism, and self-confidence. These differences are all caused by different cultural values. Different emphasis on context leads people in different cultures to communicate and behave differently. Communicators in high-context cultures tend to be indirect, and communicators in low-context cultures tend to be direct. In Chinese culture, people tend to communicate in an indirect and subtle way, and listeners are expected to interpret the message correctly. Thi s communication style is named “high context”. When requested to do something, Chinese people may say they are not sure or they will try to do it, but frequently t heir real meaning is “no”. While in such situation, Americans’ communication way tends to be relatively explicit and direct. This kind of communication style is called “low context”. When the communication takes place between people from different context, it often leads to failure.
Pragmatic transfer indicates that foreign language users apply the pragmatic rules of their mother tongues mechanically to the target language, which is a kind of cultural interference caused by the influence of their native languages and cultures. In human communication, people unconsciously use their own language structure, semantics, and the linguistic rules and value perspectives to conduct their own thoughts and behaviors, and at the same time use them as criteria to judge other people's behaviors and thoughts. That is why pragmatic transfer often occurs in intercultural communication. Pragmatic transfer can be divided into two types: positive transfer and negative transfer. In this thesis, the emphasis is put on the negative one, for it often leads to misunderstanding, communicative failure and even conflicts.
Negative transfer occurs when the foreign language learners apply the pragmatic rules of their mother tongue into the target language communication; the resultant utterance is full of errors. Individuals tend to transfer their native language forms and meanings to the foreign language and culture. That's to say, negative transfer has negative transfer of native linguistic knowledge and negative transfer of cultural conventions. Chinese and English has their own vocabulary and semantic structures, and they denote different conceptual systems respectively. Although learners of English are able to communicate with native speakers in English, sometimes they would also misunderstand one another because the messages of the target language are encode inexactly by non-native speakers. In other words, people tend to avail their present linguistic knowledge to convey the intended meaning in real communication.
3.3 Differences in Pragmatic Principles
Referring to the causes of pragmatic failure, it is unavoidable to point out some important pragmatic principles. In order to conduct effective communication, it is
necessary for interlocutors to acquaint themselves with the maxims of pragmatic principles. Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Leech’s Politeness Principle are two major pragmatic principles, and they are universally applicable, however the application of the principles differs across cultures.
Politeness is used to show one's respect to the other's face by means of speech. Social pragmatic failure occurs in many cases due to the intercultural communicators’unawareness of the differences in the actual ways to realize politeness and the standards for its judgment in different cultures. For example, Chinese people tend to be reluctant to say “no”directly. Instead, they express their unwillingness in a roundabout way. Because the refusal to an invitation or a request is impolite according to our culture, so people always would rather make a promise than refuse directly. However, in western cultures, this means breaking a promise and abandoning obligations.
According to cooperative principle, in communication the speaker should make his conversational contribution as informative, brief and clear as is required, which is the guarantee of an effective communication. But in our daily life, the information given by the addresser is more than the meaning of the words and phrases, i.e., the words and phrases often mean more than their original meaning. And this will make a conversation confusing for both the addresser and the addressee. So, much attention should be paid on these aspects.
4. Implications for Teaching and Learning
The practice of foreign language teaching and learning is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity. It's true that identifying and minimizing pragmatic failure in EFL teaching is one of the prerequisites for the student's successful intercultural communication. Thus EFL teaching should draw more attention to develop students’communicative competence. In addition, language teachers should stress appropriateness of nonverbal behaviors so that students can communicate t actfully with people from different cultures.
4.1 Cultivation of Student's Cultural Awareness
In China, for many reasons, college English teaching has always put much emphasis on language teaching itself, overlooking the important culture factor behind the language. The immediate consequence is that language learners have a good command of language knowledge, but they cannot express themselves fluently and appropriately in intercultural communication due to lack of cultural awareness. This situation has sharpened the awareness of culture teaching. In the teaching process, raising Chinese college students' cultural awareness should be one goal of classroom teaching. Chinese college English teachers are suggested to integrate English culture into classroom teaching. That is to say, Chinese college students need to learn more about English culture to acquire not only the linguistic knowledge but also the pragmatic knowledge, so that they can communicate properly in English environment.
In order to improve college students' communicative competence, college English teachers may introduce relevant cultural knowledge before explaining the context, which can not only arouse students' interest in English but also help them have a better understanding of the context. Meanwhile, Chinese college students should be offered with selective courses to get this knowledge before they have actual cross-cultural communication.
Therefore, learning a language, in fact, is inseparable from its culture. Language teachers may teach culture by explaining and introducing cultural knowledge in teaching materials. They should focus on those culturally loaded words or expressions and it's a good and effective way of teaching culture. These cultural points mainly refer to those culturally loaded words, phrases, expressions, idioms, structures or texts. For example, “a lucky dog” and the proverbs “Love me, love my dog” and “Every dog has his day”, etc. these expressions contain western culture in which people regards dogs as man's pets, friends and companions. Teachers can make good use of these idioms and proverbs to introduce the culture background and improve students’pragmatic competence because pragmatic competence is strongly influenced by culture.
4.2 Reformation of Traditional Teaching Concepts and Methods
The essential linguistic competence is the minimum bound for language communication, Pragmatic competence is set up on the base of linguistic competence, and they have different indicating objects and function independently. Linguistic competence is about the fixed linguistic rules, and pragmatic competence is about the changeful communicative environment of language using. Pragmatic competence has two main characters. One is that communicators could choose the right literal meaning of the sentences in their communications by pragmatic competence when in this situation the sentences have various meanings. The other is that communicators could judge the meaning of speeches in communication correctly and exactly which speakers hide under the literal meaning by analyzing the current context. Therefore pragmatic competence can be regarded as the language ability to use appropriate and tactful forms of expressions to communicate with others according to the current context. The ultimate purpose of teaching EFL is to develop students' communicative competence and pragmatic competence.
Task-based learning (TBL), as an integrated foreign language teaching approach, is assumed to be effective learning methods for the cultivation of pragmatic competence.
The task-based approach can not only help students integrate into a communicative context with a specific, challenging and interesting goal, but also provide an effective and favorable implication to language teaching. Thus, the linguistic communication can go on in a meaningful, natural and effective way; it is also of great necessity for the students to develop speaking, listening, reading and writing skills coherently. In task-based classroom, the students are not only given tasks to interact, but also provided natural language environment. Therefore, the students will be able to better understand the social customs and ways of life of the target language, and thus behave more appropriately in native speaking environments.
Meanwhile, in a TBL classroom, students become the focus of the classroom, and the teacher is no longer the master who decides what to teach and learn, instead,
the teacher is the facilitator who coordinates with students and help mutual feedback, negotiation or evaluation. Therefore, the students have the greatest chances to realize their autonomy in learning. Students no longer stay in the classroom passively receiving and listening to the teacher, they must be self-independent and take responsibility for their own learning. Students can give full play of their initiative, creativity and intelligence with the language. The student's intrinsic motivation is keeping high in this way. Through working together and the collaborative efforts, students fulfill meaningful tasks in simulated authentic settings, and the ultimate goal of foreign language teaching will achieved.
The requirement of foreign language teachi ng and learning is to develop learners’ speaking, listening, reading and writing skills. So, it is supposed that we get rid of the exam-oriented educational system. The ultimate goal of learning English is to acquire the ability to use English appropriately in daily communication. Undoubtedly, it is urgent and significant to improve the present English tests.
5. Conclusion
Based on the relevant research of pragmatics and intercultural communication, we analyze the causes of pragmatic failure in intercultural communication, mainly resulting from culture differences, inappropriate transfer, ignorance of the context, and different pragmatic principles. Chinese and English are culturally and pragmatically different in a large part, and they are often transferred into their language behaviors with negative effects. Meanwhile, due to lack of pragmatic knowledge and pragmati c competence, the communicators’ability are not adequate enough to make the interaction appropriately in coping with particular context and in achieving communicative purpose.
There are also some concrete and feasible suggestions for foreign language teaching. Developing students’cultural awareness and skills in intercultural communication is as necessary part of foreign language teaching. It is very important to harmonize Chinese culture with the target culture in foreign language teaching.
English teacher should also innovate our language teaching methods. We must be aware that foreign language is a tool and bridge to understand people in different cultures and to communicate with them effectively.
At present, the research of pragmatic failure in intercultural communication has important theoretic meaning and realistic value in the contemporary linguistic study. Since this is only a preliminary pragmatic analysis, further investigations and more researches are needed to carry out from the perspective of contextual cognition. Moreover, further studies should be done by classifying college students into two groups: the non-English majors and the English majors, and then probing into their pragmatic failures respectively.
Works Cited
Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words Oxford: Oxford University Press 1962. Brown, P.&S. Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Leech, GN, Principles可Pragmatics [M], New York: Longman, 1983
Thomas, J., Cross-cultural pragmatic.failure [J], Applied Linguistics, 1983 Thomas, Jenny. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman. 1995
Yule, GPragmatics [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000.
黄次栋，语用学与语用错误，《外国语》，1984，第1期
胡文仲《跨文化交际与英语学习》上海译文出版社，1988
胡文仲，((跨文化交际学概论》[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社，1997
胡壮麟.Linguistics: A Course Book.北京: 北京大学出版社, 2001: 87.
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开题报告 跨文化交际的语用失误
中国矿业大学徐海学院英语专业 《英语学术论文写作》课程论文 姓名：____王鲁楠_________ 班级：_____英语08-1______ 学号：_____22080409______ 成绩：__________________ 2011.10
论文开题报告 论文题目:浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误 论文题目:Analysis of Pragmatic Failure in Cross-culture Communication 一、本选题的国内外研究现状、水平和发展趋势 1. 研究现状 珍妮·托玛斯（Jenny Thomas）于1983年在其“跨文化语用失误”一文中首次提出了语用失误这一概念，这位跨文化语用失误及其原因的研究奠定了理论基础。 在国内，黄次栋于1984年在其“语用学与语用错误”一文中首次提出了“语用错误” 这一概念。他详细阐述了十种不同的语用错误并且指出，在语言学习中，除了要掌握必要的语言知识如语音、语法和词汇等外，更重要的是要掌握不同的语言形式在不同的非言语语境和背景下的运用。他还建议有关言语行为中的语用内容应该增加到大纲中并且教授给学生。自此，有关语用失误的研究日益增多，许多学者对学习者语用失误的原因进行了研究并提出了有效的减少语用失误的方法。 继黄次栋之后，何自然、严庄（1986）对语用失误进行了量的研究，他们以托玛斯的理论为基础，在其“中国学生在英语交际中的语用失误——汉英语用差异调查”一文中，对来自几所大学的79名语言教师在语言语用失误和社交语用失误方面的汉英差异进行了调查，结果表明，导致语用失误的主要原因是语言语用知识和社交语用知识的缺乏。由此，他们提出，在课堂教学中应该教授跨文化语用知识。他们的研究对于探索和分析中国学生的语用失误有极大的实际价值。他们所采用的问卷也为今后语用失误的研究提供了一个范例。此外，王得杏（1990）将语用失误的研究扩展到跨文化语用失误的研究，并且解释了语用失误的原因及减少语用失误的方法。贾玉新（1997）提出，正是文化差异导致了行为举止、问候语、社会价值观等方面的差异。戈玲玲（2002）认为语用失误主要源自不同的文化背景，由于说话者与听话者分别来自不同的文化背景，他们之间会产生不恰当的言语行为。戴伟栋、张红玲（2002）指出，文化迁移时导致语用失误的主要原因之一，他们认为，文化迁移有两种，即表层结构迁移和深层结构迁移，语言语用失误属于表层结构迁移，而社交语用失误属于深层结构迁移。郝钦海（2000）的“广告语言中的跨文化语用失误”中提出造成语用失误的主要原因是违反了语用规约。在语言教学方面，鲁健冀（1993）提出，我们在教学中总是忽略了汉语语言原则的变化，从而导致了母语的迁移，因此母语迁移特别是母语的负迁移是产生语言失误的主要原因。 2．水平和发展趋势 内学者对语用失误分别进行了质的研究和量的研究，并从不同的角度分析了语用失误产生的原因，综上所述，造成语用失误的主要原因有文化差异、文化迁移、母语迁移和违反语用规约，众多学者研究了言语行为或非言语行为方面的语言失误及其成因，他们的研究具有非常重要的实用价值。对语用失误成因的分析也非常具体，但是关于语用失误原因的分析仅限于文化方面，这些研究也没有同时对言语行为和非言语行为两方面的语言失误进行具体的研究，很多学者只是对语用失误原因进行了分析，
跨文化交际中的言语行为浅析
跨文化交际中的言语行为浅析
跨文化交际中的言语行为浅析 张洁 （云南师范大学文学院，云南昆明 650500） 摘要：人们在社会交际中使用各种各样的言语行为，如问候、告别、致谢、恭维、拒绝、邀请、说服、威胁、禁止等。文章从见面语、告别语、宴请招待用语、谦虚用语几个方面对交际中的言语行为进行分析概括，通过跨文化交际中的实际案例说明不同国家使用不同行为方式来表达相同的意思。 关键词：跨文化交际；见面语；告别语；宴请招待用语；谦虚用语 不同的社会、不同的群体或言语社团语用规范存在着差异，都有着各自独特的规则。在相似的交际情景中，所使用的语言有可能截然不同。在阅读了吴为善与严慧仙所著的《跨文化交际概
论》以及数篇有关跨文化交际中的语用方面的文章的基础上，笔者从见面语、告别语、宴请招待用语、谦虚用语几个方面对交际中的言语行为进行分析，为跨文化交际者提供一些帮助。 一、见面语 在日常生活中，人们见面一般都要有所表示，我们称之为打招呼。这种打招呼可以是使用语言，也可以使用手势、眼神等，或者通过以上几种综合表达。不同国家、不同文化背景下的人们打招呼的方式不同。如英国人一般会以天气作为见面语，如“what a nice day”“how wonderful the weather is today”。而泰国人见面则双手合十，嘴里道“萨瓦迪卡”或“萨瓦迪卡啦不”。毛利人见面喜欢以额头轻轻接触对方额头来打招呼。而我们中国人见人最喜欢问，“你吃过了吗？”“去哪儿啊？”所以，不同国家见面打招呼的方式是不一样的，如果不了解这个国家的文化，很有可能会造成误解。如中国人的“你吃过
跨文化交际论文中文
浅谈跨文化交际 【摘要】在中西跨文化交际中，文化冲突的事例屡见不鲜，严重影响了交往的顺利进行，因此我们很有必要找出其深层次的原因，并采取一定的措施来培养跨文化交际的能力，避免文化冲突。 【关键词】跨文化交际、文化差异、文化冲突 随着中国对外开放程度的逐渐深入，西方社会的人和事物越来越多地走进了我们的视野，在这种情况下，跨国域、跨民族、跨文化的经济和社会交往将会与日俱增，这就为我们提供了许多与西方人接触和交往的机会，这对于加深我们的西方社会的理解是一件好事，但这并不是一件简单的事情，因为我们所面对的是来自陌生的文化和国家，思维方式、生活习惯和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人，在与之交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突的现象。 一．中西跨文化交际中经常出现的文化冲突 在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种，在这里我们不可能一一叙述，只能列出比较常见的几种。 1.隐私方面的冲突 中国人的隐私观念比较薄弱，认为个人要归属于集体，在一起讲究团结友爱，互相关心，故而中国人往往很愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣，对方也愿意坦诚相告。而西方人则非常注重个人隐私，讲究个人空间，不愿意向别人过多提及自己的事情，更不愿意让别人干预。因此在隐私问题上中西双方经常发生冲突，例如：中国人第一次见面往往会
询问对方的年龄，婚姻状况，儿女，职业，甚至收入，在中国人的眼里这是一种礼貌，但在西方人眼里则认为这些问题侵犯了他们的隐私。 2.时间观方面的冲突 西方人的时间观和金钱观是联系在一起的，时间就是金钱的观念根深蒂固，所以它们非常珍惜时间，在生活中往往对时间都做了精心的安排和计划，并养成了按时赴约的好习惯。在西方，要拜访某人，必须事先通知或约定，并说明拜访的目的、时间和地点，经商定后方可进行。而中国人则属于多向时间习惯的国家，在时间的使用上具有很大的随意性，一般不会像西方人那样严格的按照计划进行，西方人对此往往感到不适应。 3.客套语方面的冲突 中国人注重谦虚，在与人交际时，讲求“卑己尊人”，把这看作一种美德，这是一种富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。在别人赞扬我们时，我们往往会自贬一番，以表谦虚有礼。西方国家却没有这样的文化习惯，当他们受到赞扬时，总会很高兴地说一声“Thank you”表示接受。由于中西文化差异，我们认为西方人过于自信，毫不谦虚；而当西方人听到中国人这样否定别人对自己的赞扬或者听到他们自己否定自己的成就，甚至把自己贬得一文不值时，会感到非常惊讶，认为中国人不诚实。 4.餐饮习俗方面的冲突 中华民族素有热情好客的优良传统。在交际场合和酒席上，热情的
语用失误及对策
浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误及其应对策略 摘要：在跨文化交际时,人们常常理所当然地以本国文化的准则和社会规范作为解释和评价别人行为的标准，这种行为往往造成交际失败，并产生较大的心理或社会距离，即造成语用失误。可以说，语用问题已经成为跨文化交际顺利进行的障碍。本文就语用失误中社交语用失误的概念、产生的原因以及应对策略三个方面进行简单的分析和概括，希望能使更多人了解语用失误，并且能正确应对语用失误以实现交际顺利进行。 关键词：跨文化交际；语用失误；文化背景；社会环境 Abstract: In cross-cultural communication,people often take it for granted that their own cultural norms and social norms as the standard to explain and evaluate the behavior of others.This behavior often causes communication failure and larger psychological or social distance.We can say that pragmatic problems has become the obstacle for the smooth intercultural communication.In this paper,I analysis and summary the pragmatic failure simply in three aspects that concept,reasons and strategy.Hope to make people know more about pragmatic failure and fix them to make Communication go smoothly. Key word: cross-cultural communication;pragmatic failure;cultural background;social environment
跨文化交际中的语用失误
跨文化交际中的语用失误 【摘要】近年来,随着跨文化交际的日趋频繁,语用失误引起了国内外语言学家及语言教师的重视。国内外很多学者及语言教师对语用失误进行了一系列的研究。绝大多数的研究都是在英国语言学家Jenny Thomas的研究成果之上进行的。然而,她对语用失误的定义及分类忽略了非语言交际而存在的局限。本文希图借助有限的篇幅阐释不同层次上的语用失误,分析其理论根源,并在此基础上提出帮助学生克服语用失误的教学上的对策 【关键词】语用失误跨文化交际外语教学启示 一、引言 随着社会语言学和语用学的建立和发展，语言学研究的中心逐渐从结构转向功能，从孤立的语言形式转向社会环境中的语言形式，作为语用学及其分支学科———语际语用学的热点话题，语用失误引起了国内外语言学家及语言教师的重视，在近二十年的时间里，国内外许多学者及语言工作者对语用失误进行了一些研究，已经有很多成果问世。但是，笔者发现到目前为止对跨文化交际语用失误的研究存在以下问题。1.对“跨文化语用失误”的界定不清。2.研究的对象局限于jenny thomas所提出的语用语言失误和社会语用失误。这种二分法有很大的局限性，因为她忽视了交际中的一个重要反面，既非语言交际的语用失误。3.重语际语用失误语料，轻语内语用失误语料的收集。4.多描述不同文体中语用失误的实例，缺少对语用失误产生根源的探讨。 本文重点研究中国人在用英语进行跨文化交际中实现其言语行为是出现的语用失误，对其进行归类并分析所收集的实例，找出产生失误的原因，分析其理论根源，语用失误的研究可以让我们了解其本质，提高对英语学习者语用能力培养的重要性和紧迫性的认识，并在此基础上提出帮助学生克服语用失误的教学上的对策。 二、跨文化语用失误界定及分类 语用失误(pragmatic failure)这一概念是英国著名语用学家Jenny Thomas 1983年在“跨文化交际中的语用失误（Cross cultural Pragmatic Failure）一文中提出的。她将其定义为“the inability to understand what is meant by what is said”
跨文化交际语用错误举例
跨文化交际语用错误举例
跨文化交际语用错误举例 【篇一：跨文化交际语用错误举例】 周刊２００７年第３３期先，人们认为，任何语境中词汇单位的正确意义，一般应当是最符合该语境的那个意义。就某种意义而言，这也就是说，对词语的正确解释即是给整个语境贡献最少的那个解释。换言之，正确的理解最大限度地依赖于语境，而不是最大限度地依赖于孤立的词语。我们如果根据词语的运用范围，即根据词汇单位所处语境的种类来研究词汇意义，便能清楚看到上述原则的重要意义。”（谭载喜，ｐ１４８）我们如果脱离了词语的上下文语境，只根据只字片语而想当然地按照自己的主观臆念得出结论，恐怕往往会与原文作者本义相悖。 参考文献：〔１〕ＡｐｐｒｏａｃｈｅｓｔｏＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．ＰｅｔｅｒＮｅｗｍａｒｋ，２００１ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔２〕ＣａｍｂｒｉｄｇｅＩｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＷｉｔｈＣｈｉ－ｎｅｓｅＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．英汉双解剑桥国际英语词典．ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒ－ｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔３〕ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＴｈｅＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＬａｎｇｕａｇｅ〔Ｍ〕，ＰａｔｒｉｃｋＨａｎｋｓＥｄｉｔｏｒ，ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＬｏｎｄｏｎ＆Ｇｌａｓｇｏｗ．〔４〕ＬｏｎｇｍａｎＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＣｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＮｅｗＥｄｉｔｉｏｎ（Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ－Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ）〔Ｍ〕．ＴｈｅＣｏｍｍｅｒｃｉａｌＰｒｅｓｓ＆ＡｄｄｉｓｏｎＷｅｓｌｅｙＬｏｎｇｍａｎＣｈｉｎａＬｉｍｉｔｅｄ．１９９８．〔５〕ＴｈｅＮｅｗＯｘｆｏｒｄＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ〔Ｍ〕．Ｅｄ
跨文化交际案例分析答题技巧
汉硕案例分析答题技巧 最近很多人问关于汉语国际教育考试中的案例分析题该怎样答，我根据自己的粗浅经验，现总结如下： 1.答题思路：按照发现问题-- 分析问题-- 解决问题的思路。具体如下：（1）发现问题：也就是提出问题。在所给的案例中，某个出国教汉语的志愿者教师或来中国教外语的外教等，遇到了什么样的困难。遇到的困难可能是课堂教学时的，比如学生上课都不积极回答问题，不愿意参与老师精心设计的课堂活动，或者问老师一些可能涉及到“隐私”的问题；也可以是这位老师在生活上遇到的问题，比如无法与当地人沟通或交流（语言障碍，文化障碍），无法适应当地人的生活，或不理解当地人做某事时为什么会采取那样的方式，等等。注意：遇到的问题可能是多方面的，要从多角度分析，一般情况下，也不只是一个问题，所以，要按条来答。 （2）分析问题：要求你具体分析一下这位老师或某人遇到这种困难是什么原因引起的，主要是文化方面的原因，可能还涉及到一些他所采用的文化策略等。比如，他由于对对方国家文化不了解，对方国家可能很注重“隐私”，而在我们国家这不被看做是“隐私”。同时要求你分析出我们的母语文化具有什么样的特点，最主要的是和对方国家有什么不一样，哪里不一样，因此造成了他在文化方面的不适应，以至于教学和生活中都出现了问题或遇到了困难。关于他所使用的文化策略，主要就是他自身有没有做到尊重当地的文化，有没有试着去融入这种文化，接受这种文化，还是一味的采取排斥策略，认为自己的一切都好，别人的一切都不好。这就是分析问题了。 （3）解决问题：这是最关键的部分了。怎么解决他遇到的问题或困难？你自己提出个对策就行了，当然，要根据一些你所知道的文化常识和应对策略。比如首先尊重当地文化，多和当地人交流，努力让自己适应当地人的文化和生活方式，做到求同存异，等等。这里需要注意的就是，有些文化的知识是很灵活的，比如中国人的谦虚、中庸的思想等等，都是我们日常生活就知道的，就是稍微总结一下，理顺一下，就能答题了。关于这个，如果时间还来得及，就看一下程裕祯的《中国文化要略》，看一下中国文化的特点等，很多东西是很细致的，自己要稍加总结。如果时间不是很充分了，就把刘珣的《对外汉语教育学引论》上的关于“跨文化交际”的那个章节仔细看一下，我觉得应对这道题应该够用了。 2.答题方法：其实思路清晰了就很好弄了，老师会看你的逻辑分析能力。强烈建议大家一定要分条论述，千万别想到哪说到哪，写出一大片，阅卷老师还得自己去给你找点，这样，老师会很疲劳的，老师最不喜欢的就是这种思维混乱的。所以说，大家答题时我觉得可以按两种方法来写： 第一种：按发现问题---分析问题---解决问题来写，一共三条，然后在每条的下边分几个小点，因为发现的问题肯定不止一个，相应的分析问题和解决问题也会不止一条。 第二种：按一共出现了几个问题分条，第一条，问题1：发现问题--分析问题--解决问题；问题2：发现问题--分析问题--解决问题；问题3--以此类推。 总结一下，以上两种方法都各有利弊，因为有时不同的问题是由同一个原因产生的，或者需要同一种解决策略。所以，大家可以根据自己的喜好来选择其中一种。按以上的问题全部分析完以后，最好再来个综述，大致总结一下，字数不用太多，就是有个小结尾。 最后，要跟大家说的是，字数和字迹的问题。这个案例分析要求是1000字以上
跨文化交际论文
跨文化交际论文 学院：水产与生命学院专业：水产养殖专业10-4 姓名：黄运佳 学号：1001110411
浅谈中西方语言文化和饮食的差异 1.语言文化差异 语文是社会的产物，是人类历史和文化的结晶。它凝聚着一个民族世代相传的社会意识，历史文化，风俗习惯等各方面人类社会所有的特征。不同的文化背影和文化传统，使中西方在思维方式，价值观念，行为准则和生活方式等方面也存在有相当的文化差异。语文是文化的载体，词汇是文化信息的浓缩，是语言的重要组成部分，它反映着文化的发展和变化，同时也直接反映着文化的差异。 在中国两千多年的封建社会历史的过程中，儒家思想一直占据着根深蒂固的弦统治地位，对中国社会产生了极其深刻而久远的影响。中国人向来以自我贬仰的思想作为处世经典，这便是以儒家的“中庸之道”作为行为的基本准则。“中”是儒家追求的理想境界，人生处世要以儒家仁、义、礼、智、信的思想道德观念作为每个人的行为指南，接人待物，举止言谈要考虑温、良、恭、俭、让，以谦虚为荣，以虚心为本，反对过分地显露自己表现自我。因此，中国文化体现出群体性的文化特征，这种群体性的文化特征是不允许把个人价值凌驾于群体利益之上的。 西方国家价值观的形成至少可追溯到文艺复兴运动。文艺复兴的指导思想是人文主义，即以崇尚个人为中心，宣扬个人主义至上，竭力发展自己表现自我。“谦虚”这一概念在西方文化中的价值是忽略不计的。生活中人们崇拜的是“强者”“英雄”。有本事，有才能的强者得到重用，缺乏自信的弱者只能落伍或被无情地淘汰。因此，西方文化体现出个体文化特征，这种个体性文化特征崇尚个人价值凌驾于群体利益之上。 正因为如此，中西两种文化在对某些单词所带有褒贬色彩上有差异。如：ambition一词，本身具有褒贬两种含义。中国人用其贬义，表示“野心勃勃”，而英美人则取其褒义，表示“雄心壮志”。Aggressive一词，中国人常用来形容某人“挑衅”“好斗”，而美国人则用来形容某人“进取上进，有开拓精神”。 我国的群体性文化，非常重视家庭亲友关系，把它视为组成社会的细胞；而在西方国家，崇尚独立自主自强自立。中国人重视传统的君臣，父子，论资排辈，等级森严，而在英美国家，长辈与晚辈间地位平等，不计较老少界限，多以朋友相处。中国人的传统观念历来崇尚“四世同堂”“合家团圆”，自古就有“父母在，不远游”的良言古训；而在英美国家，18岁的子女仍住在家里依靠父母生活是不可思议的事情，他们必须依靠自己的双手去独立生活。同样，年龄大的父母即使失去了生活自理能力，一般也不会拖累子女，他们往往要住进老人院，由社会关照。 文化的不同带来价值观念的在不相同。如lod一词，中国人历来就有“尊老敬老”的传统。“老”在中文里表达尊敬的概念，如老祖宗，老爷爷，老先生等。“老张”，“老王”，透着尊敬和亲热，“张老”“王老”更是尊崇有加。中国人往往以年龄大为荣。和别人谈话时，年龄越大，资格越老，也就越会得到别人的尊敬。“姜还是老的辣”。在我们看来，长者不仅是智慧的化身，也是威望的象征。然而，西方国家极少有人愿意倚老卖老而自称”old”。在他们看来，“old”是“不中用”的代名词，是和“不合潮流”“老而无用”的含义连在一起的。英美人不喜欢别人说自己老，更不会倚老卖老。在西方文化中，他们把年龄作为个人极为重要的隐私看待。尤其是女士，更忌讳别人问自己的年龄。即使愿意谈论自己的年龄，也要别人猜测其年龄，而此时，他们的真正目的的期望别人恭维他们看上去比实际年龄小，是多么年轻。又如，英美人忌讳莫深的fat一词，见人说fat会令人沮丧不快而且反感。说到fatmeat （肥肉）多半会被认为是毫无价值的该扔掉的废物。而中国人见了小孩子说“胖嘟嘟”“胖乎乎”，表示对孩子的喜爱，对成年男子说fat有“发福”之义，对成年女子讲fat有“丰满”
跨文化交际的障碍及克服策略
跨文化交际的障碍及克 服策略 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
跨文化交际的障碍及克服策略 1.跨文化交际的障碍 经济全球化是人类社会发展的必然趋势，并且逐渐由经济层面发展到政治、文化层面。目前迅猛发展的经济全球化看似如洪水猛兽，其实正真让我们招架不住的却并不是经济的因素，而是席卷而来的文化冲击。正如洪水恐怖的并不是它无坚不摧的力量，而是它之于我们掌控一切的震慑之威。可以说，文化全球化是经济全球化在文化邻域的延伸，也是未来世界发展的主导趋势，由于它同时包含着知识的传播和价值的渗透，因此不同的国家和民族对于文化全球化的趋势采取了不同的态度。以美国为首的西方发达国家试图在世界重建自己的势力范围，凭借自己的雄厚的经济实力、发达的科技水平以及强大的政治力量，大肆积极地向全世界输出自己的生活方式以及价值观，而“第三世界”的许多国家却对这种具有浓重的“西方中心论”色彩的文化全球化趋势采取了一种保留的态度。当一种文化超出了另一种文化群体的接受程度，势必会引起文化冲突。文化作为人类精神财富的结晶，具有鲜明的多元性和民族性特点，不同文化的矛盾、冲突体现在不同国家的政治制度、价值观念、文学艺术、风俗习惯、哲学思想、伦理道德、宗教信仰等各个方面。这种文化上的多元性及其所导致的排他性和不宽容性，成为当前国际冲突的深层原因之一。⑨ 但是，无论我们个人如何排斥其他民族的文化，但是我们始终无法阻挡全球化这一趋势的出现。于是，建立在彼此尊重和相互平等基础之上的文化融合产生了萌芽。但是，我们始终无法完全抛弃自己所处的身份地位，也始终无法忘却自己是谁。我们看似是接受了外来的文化，但是我们所接受的那一部分却是最表层的那一部分。文化冰山模式是最为人们熟知的文化模式之一，其主要研究焦点是组成
跨文化交际毕业设计论文.doc
Globalization and the Traditional Notion about a Family 1101214008 11109班 陈欢
Globalization and The Traditional Notion about a Family Nowadays , our world is a globalized world. Countries depend on each other and no one nation can be independent of the globalization architecture. There is no doubt that globalization tightly connects the world with us in political , economic , cultural field and so on. It brings not only wealth, the greater its charm lies in the mutual language, culture and other aspects of the infiltration and integration. But except the benefits and good effects the globalization makes , there are so many risks and hidden dangers. In the background of the globalization , a imperceptible problem is our culture has been challenged, especially the traditional culture. Globalization show us the different cultures which are gradually penetrating into the minds of people. It has a great influence on societies , families and individuals. Speaking of family, Chinese people have their own the traditional notion about it. Whether globalization will change the notion? This is my theme. China is a country with 5000 years of civilization, accumulating many great cultures and spreading many nice manners and customs. And these contain the traditional notion of Chinese family, whose stable spreading plays a large role in maintaining social stability in the ancient and modern China. Our traditional notion about family generally refers to
跨文化语用失误的分析
The Analysis Of Pragmatic Failures In Cross-cultural Communication 1.Introduction With the globalization of the contemporary economy and society, intercultural communication becomes more and more frequent. However, different cultural backgrounds lead to different language conventions and rules. That will cause misunderstanding even obstacles in the cross-cultural communication. In order to avoid making ridiculous mistakes during communication, people should have cultural awareness and use the language appropriately to make the communication successful. That is the competence of cross-cultural communication. As we all know that through many years of English learning, most Chinese students may have little problem in grammar and vocabulary, but only a small proportion of them can achieve pragmatic competence. So it is necessary to know the pragmatic failures in the cross-cultural communication (Leech, G .N. Principles of Pragmatics [M]. New York: Longman, 1983: 32,150). About the pragmatic failures, Chinese scholars have done much work and people can see such articles in various periodicals. It was first raised by Thomas, J.He believed that pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication is a common phonemon( Thomas, J.(1983) Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure [J].Applied Linguistics, vol.4 (2):91- 112). However, those articles just discuss or list the different types of the pragmatic failures and analyze the possible reasons causing pragmatic failures. The thesis aims to study problems and causes in cross-culture communication and this paper also analyzes the differences between English and Chinese learners and then offers some methods. This paper wants to provide the readers with some basic knowledge about the language difference between English and Chinese. Meanwhile, it can help the English learners to develop their language skills to make a smooth cross-cultural communication. 2. Problems in Cross-culture Communication
广告语言中的跨文化语用失误 — 简析中译英广告语言
广告语言中的跨文化语用失误—简析中译英广告语言
广告语言中的跨文化语用失误—简析中译英广告语言 郝钦海(首都经济贸易大学英语教研室北京100026) 【摘要】广告语言业已成为一种应用语言, 有其独特之处。随着我国经济的发展, 出口广告已 成为开拓海外市场的一个重要手段。但由于中、英文化形态、风俗习惯及认知模式的巨大差异, 跨文 化语用失误时有发生, 成为中国产品打入国际市场的一大障碍。本文通过对一些中译英广告的分析 发现, 造成语言语用失误和社会语用失误的主要原因是: 语用规则、语用意义的迁移、泛化, 联想意 义的差异, 禁忌语的误用及对两种文化不同价值观的忽略。 【关键词】认知; 语言迁移; 语用失误; 广告 【Abstract 】A dvertising is som ething that w e are all expo sed to and it is likely to affect mo st of us in different spheres of our lives. This paper focuses on cro ss2cultural p ragm atic failure in hybrid advertising language,nam ely the English advertisem ents translated from Chinese.W ith the help of Thom as’ distinction betw een p ragm alinguistic failure and sociop ragm atic failure, based on Ro sch’s p ro to type theo ry, L akoff’s t heo ry of cognitive models, and the theo ry of language transfer, the p resent study is undertaken by exp lo ring the reasons fo r cro ss2cultural p ragm atic failure, revealing that the sources of failure are traced back to the transference of p ragm alinguistic and sociop ragm atic rules of mo ther tongue to the target language. Far from a detailed study as it is,it is really an attemp t in this sphere. It goes w ithout saying that such a research is of p ractical significance to peop le engaged bo th in business and linguistic circles,and to our country’s econom ic developm ent as w ell. 【Key words 】cognitive;language transfer;p ragm atic failure;advertisem ent 广告既是一种经济发展的产物, 又是一种文化采用新颖的词语和独特的表达方式, 故意违背格赖 的产物。由于广告所具有的特殊功能, 广告语言作为斯的会话准则, 即方式准则, 不仅吸引顾客的注意 一种实用文体, 在词汇、句法、修辞等方面都独具特力, 强化广告的影响, 而且新颖奇特的方式常令人一点。正因为这些独特之处, 长期以来, 广告语言一直时费解, 读者不免会停下来加以思索, 从而领悟其意 是许多语言学家从不同角度研究的对象。境, 并参与产品消费。Geis(1982) 发现广告英语用间 L eech (1966) 开了系统研究广告文体语言特征接隐晦的手法, 寓意言外, 妙用歧义。与此同时, 随着之先河, 从文体学的角度对广告语言中的各种语言社会语言学的不断发展, 广告语言也一度成为社会 特征进行系统研究, 展示和评述了最有意义的语言语言学研究的重要课题。社会语言学不仅研究其语 特征。之后, 许多学者开始对广告英语的词汇、句法言特征, 而且更注重广告在社会环境中的运用, 揭示和修辞特征加以研究。随着语用学理论的兴起, 许多了决定广告形式的社会因素及广告所产生的社会影 语言学家又用语用学的观点探索广告语言的特征。响。许多中国学者也从不同角度对广告语言进行了
跨文化交际中的语用失误现象
跨文化交际中的语用失误现象 当说话人在言语交际中使用了符号关系正确的句子，但说话不合时宜或者说话方式不妥，表达不合习惯等，具体说来，说话人不自觉地违反了人际规范、社会规约，或者不合时间和空间，不看对象，不顾交际双方的身份、地位、场合等，违背目的语特有的文化价值观念，使交际行为中断或失败，使语言交际遇到障碍，导致交际不能取得预期效果或达到完满的交际效果, 这种性质的错误就叫语用失误(何自然，1997 ；钱冠连，1997 ；张巨文，2000)。英国著名语用学家Jenny Thomas (1983) 对语用失误进行了定义和分类, 认为语用失误是不能理解话语的含义，并指出语法错误从表层上就能看出，受话者很容易发现这种错误。这种错误一旦发现，受话者便会认为说话者缺乏足够的语言知识，因此可以谅解。语用失误却不会被像语法失误一样看待。如果一个能说一口流利外语的人出现语用失误, 他很可能会被认为缺乏礼貌或不友好。他在交际中的失误便不会被归咎于语言能力的缺乏，而会被归咎于他的粗鲁或敌意。托马斯将语用失误划分成两类: 一类是语用—语言失误(pragmatic linguistic failure)，指非本族语者赋予某个话语的语用意义不同于本族语者通常赋予该话语的语用意义，或者是非本族语者把母语的言语行为策略不适当地迁移到目的语中来而产生的语用失误。另一类是社交—语用失误(socio pragmatic failure) , 指的是交际中不了解或忽视交际双方的不同社会文化背景差异而造成的语言表达失误。出现社会语用失误的根源在于不同的文化对什么是得体的语言行为看法不同。一般说来, 语用—语言失误往往比较容易得到人们的理解和谅解，他们通常被认为是说话人在语言知识和语言能力方面有所欠缺。然而，社交—语用失误却不为人们所接受或者忍受，它所产生的负面影响是难以消除的，因为它触及到了英语国家人们的个人隐私权和文化禁忌等。以下将通过中西方文化差异对比实例阐述跨文化交际中的语用失误现象，并指出原因。 称呼语是言语交际活动的第一关。在各种交际策略中，称呼是最基本的策略。中国文化非常重视宗亲关系。因此，中国人习惯将亲属称谓用作社交称谓, 即把亲属之间的称谓用于非亲属之间, 甚至用于称呼陌生人, 从“爷爷”、“奶奶”、“叔叔”、“阿姨”到“哥哥”、“姐姐”不一而足。这种称谓可以使交际双方感到亲近，缩小双方的距离，从而收到较好的交际效果。此外，在中国文化中，人们出自礼貌，在相互称呼时仍按“上下、贵贱、长幼”有别的传统来体现人际交往中的社会关系。而在西方国家，尤其是英美国家，强调人的独立性、平等性，这种称谓是不能接受的。一般来讲, 西方人际交往相互“称呼”时, 起决定作用的是社会地位, 即交际双方是“权势”关系还是“平等”关系。如果是“平等”关系, 双方将会采用对等交流，即双方都用名字称呼对方；但当交际双方之关系是一种“权势”关系,
跨文化交际中的文化障碍分析
An Analysis of Cultural Barriers in Intercultural Communication Abstract: This paper, from the perspective of intercultural communication, tries to analyze the cultural barriers caused by cultural differences in intercultural communication, generalizes the types of surface barriers and underlying barriers , and then puts forward a few suggestions on how to clear t he barriers by furthering learners’ understanding of the implicit culture. Key words: Intercultural communication; Cultural barriers; Teaching and learning 0 引言 对于文化,不同学科的学者针对各自的学科特性有不同的解说。至今,人们对文化的定义已达近200种。但仔细分析后,又可以发现这些定义之间存在着不少共同点。概括起来,可分为表层文化和深层文化两个层次。前者指的是一个社会群体在人际交往中的约定俗成的习惯性定势构成的生活方式和交往方式,如风俗习惯、道德风尚、语言风格、礼仪礼貌、言谈举止的行为规范等。后者指的是精神本质层面,如价值观念、思维方式、情感方式等。深层文化制约着人们的行为方式,并通过表层文化表现出来,因而,每个民族几乎都有自己独特的内容和方式。正是因为这种文化的民族性,在一定程度上限制了在一种文化中成长的人们对另一文化的接受,从而形成文化障碍,给语言学习和跨文化交际带来种种困难,甚至导致交际失败。笔者试图对英语学习中的表层文化障碍和深层文化障碍的几个主要方面进行分析,并提出一些对策,以期对英语学习有所帮助。 1 表层文化障碍的主要表现 1. 1 对具有文化内涵的词语的不同理解 词汇的文化内涵具有很强的民族性, 每一种语言的词汇随时间的变迁、社会的发展其意义或扩大或缩小,同时有些词由于经常使用逐渐积累了一些联想的意义,都可以称为词汇的文化内涵[1 ] 。在不同的语言中,词的文化内涵呈现出不同的情况。在英汉两种语言中实际上只有部分词汇完全对应,而另一部分词汇虽有局部对应的解释,但在词义或文化内涵上不完全相同。 在人类历史发展进程中,动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存和发展有着深刻的影响。这种依赖与亲密的关系使得人类对动物产生喜爱、同情、厌恶、恐惧等错综复杂的情感,人们也常常借助动物来寄托和表达人的感情,所以英汉两种文化中都有许许多多与动物相关的词汇。下面是一些例句,划线部分是动物名称,括号内是其在英语中所具有的文化内涵。 1) Just look at the way he treats his wife! He is a beast . (凶残的人) 2) Bill is taking his bird to t he pictures tonight. (女朋友) 3) Don’t listen to her gossip ; she is a cat . (心地恶毒的人) 4) I am not a chicken. I just don’t want to offend anybody. (懦夫、胆小鬼) 5) She likes to stay at home , but her husband is a bit of a gay dog. (爱玩的人) 6) Why did you put your finger in the fire , you silly donkey ! (傻瓜,固执的人) 7) In t he city I was nothing , but t here in the countryside I was considered a big fish. (大人物) 8) Don’t t rust him , he’s an old fox. (很狡猾的人) 9) The lions at her party included two famous authors and a musician. (大人物) 10) Come here, you little monkey. What have you done (调皮鬼) 11) Don’t be a pig , Jimmy ; leave some cake for your brother . (贪婪、肮脏或没礼貌的人) 12) She has face like an angle, but he is really a terrible wolf . (凶残的人)