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新篇简明英语语言学 Chapter Two Phonology

二、知识点

2.2.1 Three branches of phonetics 语音学的三个分支

⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（longest established, mostly developed ）Studies how speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.

⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学

Studies how sounds are perceived by the hearer.

⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

Sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

2.2.2 Organs of Speech 发音器官

1. Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔（the throat-喉咙）

2. Oral cavity–口腔（the mouth-口）

greatest source of modification of air stream found here 气流调节的最主要源泉来自口腔

The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other

所有器官中，舌头最灵活，而且比其他任何器官能控制更多的发音。

3. Nasal cavity–鼻腔（the nose-鼻）

2.2.3 Orthogarphic representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcription 语音的正字表征—宽式和严式标音

*Distinctions between broad and narrow transcription

Broad transcription：the transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

Narrow transcription：the transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类

元音和辅音之间的实质性区别：元音产生的过程中，来自肺部的气流不受任何阻塞。

（air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever）

2.2.4.1 classification of English consonants英语辅音的分类

1.根据发音方式（terms of manner），英语的辅音可以分为：

1） stops爆破音：发爆破音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后突然释放，如

[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]

2） fricatives摩擦音:发摩擦音时，气流部分受阻，气流从狭窄的通道挤出，产生摩擦，如[f],[v],[s],[z],[ ],[ ], [ ], [ ], [h]

3） affricates塞擦音:发塞擦音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后气流从狭窄通道缓慢释放，并伴有摩擦发生，如：[t∫], [d ]

4） liquids流音：在发流音时，受阻的气流从舌头与上部（roof of the mouth）形成的通道释放出，如：[l],[r]。

5） nasals鼻音：发音时，气流从鼻腔释放出所发出的音为鼻音，如[n],[m],[ ]

6） glides滑音(半鼻音)：滑音又称之为半元音。英语中滑音有[w]和[j]。它们的发音方式与[u]和[i]相同。

2.根据发音部位（terms of place），英语辅音可以分为：

1） bilabial双唇音：气流受阻部位在双唇，如[p],[b],[m],[w]

2） labiodental唇齿音：下唇与上齿接触使气流受阻，如[f],[v]

3） dental齿音:舌尖与上齿接触使气流受阻，如：[θ],[ ]

4） alveolar齿龈音：舌尖与上齿龈隆骨接触使气流受阻，如：

[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]

5） palatal腭音:受阻部位发生在舌根与硬腭之间，如：[∫], [ ],[ t∫ ], [ ], [j]

6） yelar软腭音:舌根与软腭接触使气流受阻，如： [k], [g], [ ]

7） glottal喉音:声带短时接触使气流受阻，如：[h]

2.2.4.2 classification of English vowels英语元音的分类（英p21图）

元音与辅音不同，不能根据辅音的发音方式和发音部位来分类。元音常根据舌位的高低（the position of the tongue in the mouth）、口腔张开的程度（the openness of the mouth）、嘴唇的形状（the shape of the lips）和元音的发音长度（the length of the vowels）。

1）舌位的高低(the position of the tongue in the mouth)

1.front vowels前元音,发音时舌头前部抬得最高：[i:] [i] [e] [ ] [a].

2.central vowels中元音,发音时舌头的中部抬得最高如：[ ], [ ],[ ]

3. back vowels后元音,发音时舌根部位抬得最高如：[u:] [ ] [ ], [ ]and [ ]. 2）开口度：根据开口度（the openness of the mouth），通常把元音分为以下四种：

1.close vowels闭元音：如：[i:],[ i],[u:],[ ]

2. semi-close vowels半闭元音:如：[e], [з: ]

3.semi-open vowels半开元音:如[ ], [ ]

4.open vowels开元音:如：[?], [a], [Λ], [ ], [ɑ:]

3）嘴唇形状（the shape of the lips）：

1.rounded vowels圆唇元音：英语中除了[ɑ:]以外，所有的后元音都是圆唇元音。

2.unrounded vowels不圆唇元音：英语中所有的前元音和中元音都是不圆唇元音。

4）元音的长度：根据发音的长度（the length of the vowels），元音分为长元音long vowels和短元音short vowels。（长元音常用一个分号来表示。英语中长元音有：[i:] [ ] [ ] [u:] [ɑ:]，其余都是短元音。）

5）根据发音时喉部的紧张程度（the length of the sound）把元音分为紧元音tense vowels 和松元音lax vowels。长元音都是紧元音,短元音都是松元音。

6）除了单元音外，英语中还有一组双元音，如：[ ei ] [ai] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]。（根据以上标准，我们可以对元音进行描述，如[e]被描述为前、半闭合、不圆唇元音。）

2.3.1 Similarities and distinctions between phonetics and phonology

Similarities:both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language---the speak sounds.音系学和语音学都是对语音的研究.

Distinctions: while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and

focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they process, how they can be classified, etc. phonology, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.

语音学研究对象是人类所有语言的语音，它主要是对语音进行描述和分类，如，音的发音方式，音的语音特征，以及音与音之间的差别；音系学研究的是某一特定语言的语音体系，即音在特定的语言中是如何结合产生有意义的单位来进行交际。(音系学家不关注不具备语义区别性价值的语音，而语音学家既研究具有语义区别性价值的音，也研究不具备语义区别性价值的音。)

2.3.2 Distinctions between phone, phoneme and allophone音素、音位、音位变体

1. phone 音素:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment, but it does not

necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.音素是一个语音单元或音段，但一个音素并不必然区别意义。

（在一门语言中不能区别意义是东西有可能在另一门语言中能区别意义。）

2. Phoneme音位:The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive

phonetic features.音位是一个音位学的单位（无论送气与否都不会影响判断（即不产生意义上的差异），即为同一音位。）

3. Allophones音位变体:Different phones which can represent a phoneme in

different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 在不同的语音环境中可以表征同一音位的不同因素称为那个音位的音位变体。

2.3.3 Identification of phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体1.Contrast 音位对立: Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two

ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. 语音相似的音可能以两种方式相互关联，如果它们是两个区别性音位，那么久可以说它们形成了一个音位对立。（不能区别意义，除了一个地方不同，其他相同）

2. complementary distribution互补分布：Two allophones of the same

phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.同一个音位的两个音位变体是出于互补分布之中的。

3. Minimal pair 最小对立对：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 当两个词除了一个在此语音串的同一位置产生的语音音段之外，在其他所有方面都相同，那么着两个声音组合就可以说是形成了一个最小对立体。（同一位置，同一语音，不同发音。）

2.3.4 Some rules in phonology音系学中一些规则

1. Sequential rules序列规则:There are rules that govern the combination

of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.

在某一特定语言中存在着支配语音组合的规则，这些规则被称为序列规则。

（1）如果一个词以[l]或[r]开头，那么接下来的音必然是一个元音。

（2）如果三个辅音要在词首聚集，其组合必须遵守以下三条规则If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the

combination should obey the following three rules:

⑴the first phoneme must be /s/

⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/

⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w

（3）支配音位模式的规则是因语言而异的。在英语中不允许的规则可能在另一门语言中是允许的。

2. Assimilation rule同化规则:The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to

another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.同化规则通过“拷贝”序列音位的一个特征来讲一个音同化成另一个，从而使两个音素相似。（相近的两个音同化）

3. Deletion rule 省略规则：It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a

sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.（Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. 当[g]出现在最后的一个鼻辅音之前时，就省略它。）

2.3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, intonation

超切分特征—————重音、音调、语调

2.3.5.1 Stress 重音

重音可以分为词重音和句重音。说话时在发某个或某几个音时所花力气比发其它音时要大，因此造成说话中的重音。重音只是一个相对的概念，只有由两个或两个以上音节构成的词才有词重音。单音节词没有重音。有些语言中的词重音是固定的，但是英语的词重音比较自由，因词而异。

（1）word stress单词重音

英语中的重音具有语义区别的特征。它可以改变一个词的词性，如在拼写不变的情况下把名词转换为动词。如：‘record (n), re‘cord(v)等。同时重音也是区别复合词与自由词组的重要标志。一般来说，复合词的主重音在复合词的第一个成分上，次重音在第二个成分上；自由词组的重音分布与复合词相反，主重音primary stress在第二个成分上，次重音secondry stress在第一个成分上。如果一个复合词只有一个重音，这个重音落在复合词的第一个成分上，如：

重音的语义区别性特征也体现在以动名词与名词构成的复合词中。如swimming pool中的主重音落在swimming上，次重音在pool上。在swimming fish 中，swimming是现在分词充当修饰语，swimming fish不是复合词，故重音落在fish上。复合词的两个成分究竟并在一起写（blackboard），还是分开写(black sheep)，还是中间用连字符(dining-room)完全是约定俗成的。

（2）sentence stress句子重音

句重音指的是句子中的某个或某几个词的由于发音力度大于句中其他成分而显得响亮。英语句子中的名词nouns、主动词main verbs、形容词adjectives、副词adverbs、数词numerals 和指示代词demonstrative pronouns通常被重读，而其它词类的词通常不重读，但是为了强调句中某一特定的内容，通常不被重读的词可以重读。

2.3.5.2 Tone声调

声调可以像音位那样具有语义区别性特征。它的语义区别功能主要发生在那些声调语言中。英语不是声调语言，但是汉语属于声调语言。The first tone is level（阴平）, the second rise（阳平）, the third fall-rise（上声）, and the fourth fall(去声).汉语中，声调的不同会改变词的语义，如当我们赋予“da”不同的声调时，会产生不同的意义：dā（搭），dá（达），dǎ（打），dà（大）。

2.3.5.3 Intonation语调

语调不是孤立的词的特征，而是句子的音调，重音和音长旋律模式。人类几乎每一种语言都可以通过改变语调来传递意义。英语中的语调有四种：降调thefalling tone、升调the rising tone、降-升调the fall-rise tone和升-降调the rise-fall tone。最为常见的是前三种：其中降调传递一种客观的陈述，声调可表示一种疑问，降升表示话中存在某些蕴含语义。

That’s fine. (降调：客观陈述)

That’s fine. (升调：表示疑问)

That’s fine. (降升：具有鼓励对方的含义)

把同一个句子划分为不同的语调单位也可以对语义产生影响。如：

Mary didn’t teach because teaching was easy for her.

如果把以上这句话看成是一个语调单位，那么“because teaching was easy for her.”便在否定范围之内，意思是“Mary教书并不是教书对她来说很容易。”如果把以上的句子划分为两个语调单位，在teach和because之间略有停顿，那么原因状语便不在否定范围内，因此该句的意思就变成了“Mary没有教书因为教书对她来说太容易。”再看下一个例子：

Mary didn’t come when she was invited.

作为一个语调单位，时间状语在否定范围之内，即：“Mary 来了，但是不是在她被邀请的时间来的。”但是如果说话人在come和when之间稍加停顿，把它划分为两个语调单位，意思是：邀请了Mary，但是她没有来。

问答题：Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?

Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.

Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

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