安全工程专业外语翻译
Unit 1
Safety Management Systems
安全管理体系
1.Accident Causation Models
1.事故致因理论
The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment.
安全管理系统最重要的目的是维护和促进工人们在工作时的健康和安全。在制定预防性计划时，了解为什么、怎样做和其他意外事故的发展是十分重要的。事故致因理论旨在阐明事故现象，和解释事故的机理。所有现代理论都是基于试图解释事件发生、发展过程和最终引起损失的事故致因理论。在古老的时期，事故被看做是上帝的行为并且几乎没有预防的方法去阻止他们。在20世纪开始的时候，人们开始相信差的物理条件是事故发生的根源。安全从业人员集中注意力在提高机器监护、维护和清理上。在大多数情况下，一件事故的发生主要有两个原因：人类的行为和物理或者社会环境。
Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s operation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays，this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work.
彼得森根据管理体系中个人的行为结合当地的环境扩充了事故致因理论。他的结论是像不安全行为、不安全情况是一些错误的组织管理系统导致事故的征兆。另外，他指出，高层管理人员负责建立一个能够有效控制危险源有关组织。一个人出现的错误可能是有意的或者是无意的。拉斯姆森和杰森已经提出了三个层次的技能规则知识模型来描述不同种类的人错误的起源。如今，这种模式已经成为在工作中检验人的错误的标准之一。
Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely to suffer anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919，based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominated the safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamed solely on employees rather than the work process or poor management practices. Since investigations to discover the underlying causal factors were felt unnecessary and/or too costly,
a little attention was paid to how accidents actually happened. Employees’ attitudes towards risks and risk taking have been studied, e. g. by Sulzer-Azaroff. According to her, employees often behave unsafely, even when they are fully aware of the risks involved. Many research results also show that the traditional promotion methods like campaigns, posters and safety slogans have seldom increased the use of safe work practices. When backed up by other activities such as training, these measures have been somewhat more effective. Experiences on some successful methods to change employee behavior and attitudes have been reported. One well-known method is a small-group process used for improving housekeeping in industrial workplaces. A comprehensive model of accident causation has been presented by Reason who introduced the concept of organizational error. He stated that corporate culture is the starting-point of the accident sequence. Local conditions and human behavior are only contributing factors in the build-up of the undesired event. The latent organizational failures lead to accidents and incidents when penetrating system’s defenses and barriers. Gmoeneweg has developed Reason’s model by classifying the typical latent error types. His TRIPOD mode! calls the different errors as General Failure Types ( CFTs). The concept of organizational error is in conjunction with the fact that some organizations behave more safely than others. It is often said that these organizations have good safety culture. After the Chernobyl accident，this term became well-known also to the public.
事故的倾向性模型表示有些人比其他人更容易引起事故。第一种模型建立在1919年来源于军工厂的统计检查。这种模式占据了人们在安全思考和研究的时间将近50年，并且仍然被一些组织使用，这种思维所造成的结果是，发生事故的责任仅仅在于员工而不是工作过程和较差的管理实践。由于对于造成事故发生根本因素的调查被认为是不必要的或者是所花费的成本太高，造成人们对于事故如何发生的关注较少。祖尔策—阿扎罗夫研究了员工对于风险和承担风险的态度，研究表明，即使员工意识到了所涉及的风险，他们仍然会有不安全的行为。许多研究表明了传统的宣传方式，例如活动，海报和安全标语，很少能够增加人们对于安全准则的使用。当通过训练去巩固这些活动的时候，这些方法在某种程度上更加有效。一些在改变员工行为和态度成功的方法已经被报道。一个为人所知道的方法就是一个小团体的改进在提高工厂管理效率。里森提出了一个综合的事故原因模型，阐明了组织概念上的错误。他表明，企业文化就是那个事件的出发点。外部的生活环境和人们的行为仅仅是意外事件发生的触发因素。那些潜在的组织的失败导致了事故和事件当穿过系统的防御和越过障碍的时候。Groeneweg已经通过把典型的进行错误分类改进了里森的模型。他的TRIPO的模型把不同的失误称作一般故障模型。组织概念的错误与有些组织比其他组织表现安全的事实是相一致的。人们常说，这些组织的表现出良好的安全文化。切尔诺贝利时间发生以后，这个名字也随之被公众所知道。
Loss prevention is a concept that is often used in the context of hazard control in process industry. Lees has pointed out that loss prevention differs from traditional safety approach in several ways. For example, there is more emphasis on foreseeing hazards and taking actions before accidents occur. Also, there is more emphasis on a systematic rather than a trial and error approach. This is also natural, since accidents in process industry can have catastrophic consequences. Besides the injuries to people, I he damage to plant and loss of profit are major concerns in loss prevention. The future research on the ultimate causes of accidents seems to focus on the functioning and management of the organization. The strategic management, leadership, motivation, and the personnel's visible and hidden values are some issues that are now under intensive study.
损失预防是一个在工业进程中危险源控制的过程中经常被提到的一个概念。Lee指出损失预防在相比于传统的几个安全措施有几个不同的地方。例如，它更强调在事故发生之前发现危险源并采取行动。此外，也更强调事故的系统性而不是进行错误的尝试。这也是很正常的，由于工业过程可能产生灾难性的后果，因此除了对人的伤害，对工厂的伤害和利润的损失也是损失预防的主要方面。对于未来的研究人们把关注点放在了组织的运行和管理上面。战略管理，领导，动机以及个人可见和不可见的价值观是一些仍处在被讨论过程中的问题。
2. Safety Management as an Organizational Activity
2.安全管理作为一种政策规划
Safety management is one of the management activities of a company. Different companies have different management practices，and also different ways to control health and safety hazards. Organizational culture is a major component affecting organizational performance and behavior. One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said that organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions—invented，discovered, or developed by a given group as it leans to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems". The concept of safety culture is today under intensive study in industrialized countries. Booth & Lee have stated that an organization's safety culture is a subset of the overall organizational culture. This argument, in fact, suggests that a company’s organizational culture also determines the maximum level of safety the company can reach. The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organization’s health and safety management. Furthermore, organizations with a positive safety culture are characterized by communications founded on mutual trust, by shared perceptions of the importance of safety, and by confidence in the efficacy of preventive measures. There have been many attempts to develop methods for measuring safety culture. Williamson el al. have summarized some of the factors that the various studies have shown to influence organization's safety culture. These include ：organizational responsibility for safety, management attitudes towards safety, management activity in responding to health and safety problems, safety training and promotion，level of risk at the workplace，workers' involvement in safety，and status of the safety officer and the safety committee.
安全管理是一个公司的管理活动之一。不同的公司有不同的管理方式，通过不同的方式来控制健康和安全隐患。组织文化是影响组织业绩和行为的重要成分。Schenin曾对于组织文化提出了一个全面的定义，组织文化是一个制式的基本假设——某一组人处理外部适应和内部整合的问题时的发明、发现、发展的——这一直运作良好，足以被认为是有效的，因此，要教给新成员的感知，思考和感觉有关这些问题的正确方式。安全文化的概念如今正在工业化的国家被深入研究。Booth和Lee都表示，一个组织的安全文化是整个组织文化的一个子集。这种说法其实表明，一个公司的组织文化也决定了公司可以达到的安全的最高水平。组织的安全文化是个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和确定承诺的行为模式，决定了一个组织的健康和安全管理的风格和熟练程度的产物。此外积极的安全文化机构具有这样的特征，即通过建立在相互信任和通过安全的重要性共享的观念沟通，并通过信心的预防措施的有效性。已经有许多人尝试开发用于测量安全文化的方法。Williamson
等人由各种研究表明总结了一些影响企业的安全文化的因素，其中包括：安全组织责任，管理部门对安全的态度，对于应对健康和安全问题的管理活动，安全培训和推广，风险的工作场所层面，在工人参与安全制定中，安全主任和安全委员会的地位。
Organizations behave differently in the different parts of the world. This causes visible differences also in safety activities, both in employee level and in the management level. Reasons for these differences are discussed in the following. The studies of Wobbe reveal that shop-floor workers in the USA are, in general, less trained and less adaptable than those in Germany or Japan. Wobbe claims that one reason for this is that, in the USA, companies providing further training for their staff can expect to lose these people to the competitors. This is not so common in Europe or in Japan. Furthermore ，for unionized companies in the USA，seniority is valued very highly，while training or individual’s skills and qualifications do not effect job security，employment, and wage levels very much. Oxenburgh has studied the total costs of absence from work, and found that local culture and legislation has a strong effect on absenteeism rates. For example, the national systems for paying and receiving compensation explain the differences to some extent. Oxenburgh mentions Sweden as a high absenteeism country, and Australia as a low absenteeism country. In Sweden injuries and illnesses are paid by the state social security system, while in Australia, the employer pays all these costs, including illnesses not related to work. Comparison of accident statistics reveals that there are great national differences in accident frequencies and in the accident related absenteeism from work. Some of the differences can be explained by the different accident reporting systems. For example, in some countries only absenteeism lasting more than three working days is included in the statistics. The frequency of minor accidents varies a lot according to the possibility to arrange substitutive work to the injured worker. Placing the injured worker to another job or to training is a common practice for example in the USA and in the UK, while in the Scandinavian countries this is a rarely used procedure
世界上的不同地区组织管理的行为不同。这也将导致明显的安全活动的差异，无论是在员工水平和管理水平。这些差异的原因将在下面讨论。Wobbe的研究表明，在美国的车间工人，一般来说，比德国或日本的培训更少，更较难适应。Wobbe声称，一个原因是，在美国企业提供进一步的培训有可能会失去这些员工，而这些在欧洲或日本不是很常见。此外,在美国公司的工会,资历的价值非常高,而个人的技能和经历不影响工作的稳定、就业和工资水平。Oxenburgh研究旷工所带来的全部损失，他发现当地文化和立法对旷工率有很大的影响。例如,国家在支付和接受赔偿方面一定程度上解释了这些差异。Oxenburgh提到瑞典是一个高缺勤率的国家，而澳大利亚则相反。在瑞典，企业的损失和治疗疾病的费用由国家保障体系支付，而在澳大利亚，雇主支付包括与工作无关疾病的所有费用。综合比较各种事故调查资料显示，在事故发生频率和事故的相关的旷工上不同民族有巨大的差异。一些差异可以由不同的事故报告系统来解释。例如，在有些国家只把持续缺勤在三个工作日以上的员工统计在内，轻伤事故发生的频率取决于对于受伤工人安排替代性工作的可能性。例如在美国和英国的普遍做法是对于受伤的工人进行培训并给予另外一份工作，然而在纳维亚的国家中，这种方法很少被使用。
Some organizations are more aware of the importance of health and safety at work than others. Clear development stages can be found in the process of improving the management of safety. Waring has divided organizations to three classes according to their maturity and ability to create an effective safety management system. Waring calls the three organizational models as the mechanical model, the socio-technical model, and the human activity system approach.
In the mechanical model, the structures and processes of an organization are well-defined and logical, but people as individuals, groups, and the whole organizations are not considered. The socio-technical model is an approach to work design which recognizes the interaction of technology' and people，and which produces work systems that are technically effective and have characters that lead to high job satisfaction. A positive dimension in this model is that human factors are seen important, for example, in communication, training and emergency responses. The last model, the human activity system approach focuses on people, and points out the complexity of organizations. The strength of this approach is that both formal (or technical) paradigms and human aspects like motivation, learning, culture, and power relations are considered. Waring points out that although the human activity approach does not automatically guarantee success, it has proven to be beneficial to organizations in the long run.
一些企业意识到在工作之中健康和安全是最重要的。在企业的安全管理的提升的过程中可以看到清晰的发展阶段。华林根据其成熟度和建立一个有效的安全管理制度的能力将组织划分了三类。华林三种组织模式分别为为机械式模型，社会和技术模式，以及人类活动的系统方法。在机械式模型中，一个组织的结构和流程都明确定义和逻辑，但并没有考虑到人、群体和整个组织。社会和技术模式是通过设计工作，认识到技术与人的关系，开创了有效并具备高工作满意度的工作系统。在此模型中的积极的方面是人为因素被视为重要的，例如，在通信，培训和紧急响应。最后的模型中，人类活动的系统方法侧重于人，并指出了组织的复杂性。这种方法的优势在于，正式（或技术）的范例和人力方面，如动机，学习，文化和能量关系的考虑。韦林指出，虽然人类活动的做法并不能确保成功，它已被证明是对组织的长远发展有利。
3. Safety Policy and Planning
3.安全政策与规划
A status review is the basis for a safety policy and the planning of safety activities. According to BS 8800 a status review should compare the company’s existing arrangements with the applicable legal requirements, organization's current safety guidelines, best practices in the industry’s branch，and the existing resources directed to safety activities. A thorough review ensures that the safety policy and the activities are developed specifically according to the needs of the company.
状态评论是一个安全政策和规划基础的安全活动。根据BS 8800的状态评估应该将企业的当前状况与适用的法律要求，组织当前的安全方针，在行业中表现最好的做法，及用于安全活动的现有资源进行比较。一个彻底的状况评审能确保根据公司的需要来开发安全政策和活动。
A safety policy is the management’s expression of the direction to be follo wed in the organization. According to Petersen, a safety policy should commit the management at all levels and it should indicate which tasks, responsibilities and decisions are left to lower-level management. Booth and Lee have stated that a safety policy should also include safety goals as well as quantified objectives and priorities. The standard BS 8800 suggests that in the safety policy，management should show commitment to the following subjects ：
一个安全政策是组织中要遵守的指令在管理层的表现。安全政策应指导各级管理人员，并应说明哪些任务，职责和决定都留给较低级别的管理。布斯和Lee表示,安全政策还应该包括安全目标、量化目标和优先事项。根据BS 8800标准中的安全政策,管理人员应该承诺以下主题:
Health and safety are recognized as an integral part of business performance ；
A high level of health and safety performance is a goal which is achieved by using the legal requirements as the minimum, and where the continual cost- effective improvement of performance is the way to do things；
Adequate and appropriate resources are provided to implement the safety policy；
The health and safety objectives are set and published at least by internal notification ；The management of health and safety is a prime responsibility of the management ，from the most senior executive to the supervisory level ；
The policy is understood, implemented, and maintained at all levels in the organization ；Employees are involved and consulted in order to gain commitment to the policy and its implementation;
The policy and the management system are reviewed periodically, and the compliance of the policy is audited on a regular basis;
It is ensured that employees receive appropriate training，and are competent to carry out their duties and responsibilities.
健康和安全被确认为经营表现主要的组成部分；
一个高等级的健康和安全性能的水平的实现满足法律要求是最低限度，应采取持续的成本效益好的方式改善性能；
提供足够和适当的资源来实施安全政策；
健康和安全目标的制定及公布至少以内部通知，健康与安全的管理是管理的首要责任，应从最高级管理人员的监管水平出发；
该政策要被组织中的各个层次人员理解，实施和维持；
员工参与和协商，以便能认可和执行政策；
对政策和管理制度进行定期审查，定期进行政策的合规审计；
它确保员工受到适当的培训，并有能力履行其职责及责任。
Some companies have developed so-called “safety principles’ which cover the key areas of the company’s safety policy. These principles are utilized as safety guidelines hat are easy to remember, and which are often placed on wall-boards and other public areas in the company. As an example, the DuPont company's safety principles are the following：
一些公司出台了安全准则，它涵盖了公司在关键领域的安全政策，这些准则是一些很容易被记住的安全指导方针，经常被放置在墙板上或者是公司的其他公共场所。列举一个例子，杜邦公司的安全原则如下：
All injuries and occupational illnesses can be prevented.
Management is responsible for safely.
Safety is an individual’s responsibility and a condition of employment.
Training is an essential element for safe workplaces.
Audits must be conducted.
All deficiencies must be corrected promptly.
It is essential to investigate all injuries and incidents with injury potential.
Off-the-job safety is an important part of the safety effort.
It is good business to prevent injuries and illnesses.
People are the most important element of the safety and occupational health program.
所有的伤害和职业病是可以预防的。
管理者应该为安全负责。
安全既是个人的责任也是接受雇佣的条件之一。
培训是构成安全的工作场所的基本要素。
安全审计工作必须进行。
所有的不安全因素要及时纠正。
调查所有的伤害以及潜在的伤害事件是至关重要的。
工作时间外的安全是安全工作的重要组成部分。
预防受伤和疾病是有益的。
人是安全以及职业健康计划中最重要的要素。
The safety policy should be put into practice through careful planning of the safety activities. Planning means determination of the safety objectives and priorities, and preparation of the working program to achieve the goals. A company can have different objectives and priorities according to the nature of the typical hazards, and the current status of hazard control. However, some common elements to a safety activity planning can be found. According to BS 8800，the plan should include ：
安全政策应该通过小心计划的安全活动来实践。计划意味着对安全目标和安全的优先顺序，并且预备可执行的计划去完成目标。根据典型事故的性质和目前危险源的控制情况，一个公司可以有不同的目标和优先事项。然而，一些共同的元素可以在安全活动计划中被找到。在BS8800中，计划应该包括：
·appropriate and adequately resourced arrangements, competent personnel who have defined responsibilities, and effective channels of communication；
·procedures to set objectives, device and implement plans to meet the objectives ,and to monitor both the implementation and effectiveness of the plans;
·description of the hazard identification and assessment activities;
·methods and techniques for measuring safety performance, and in such way that absence of hazardous events is not seen as evidence that all is well.
·适当充分的资源准备，明确责任主管人员和有效的沟通渠道。
·明确目标、所用设备确定的程序，明确为实现目标使计划生效的程序，明确计划的实施和有效性的监督程序；
·风险识别和评估活动的说明。
·用于测量安全性能的方法和技术，没有危险事件并不能看作是一切都好的证据。
In the Member States of the European Union, the “framework” Directive 89/391 / EEC obligates the employer to prepare a safety program that defines how the effects of technology, work methods, working conditions, social relationships and work environment are controlled. According lo Walters, this directive was originally passed to harmonize the overall safety strategies within the Member States, and to establish a common approach to the management and organization of safety at work. Planning of the safety activities is often done within the
framework of quality and environmental management systems.
在欧盟成员国中，“框架”指令89/391/ EEC责成雇主准备定义技术，工作方法，工作条件，社会关系和工作环境的影响，如何控制安全程序。据罗沃尔特斯，该指令原本是协调成员国间的整体安全策略，并建立一个共同的方法来安全工作的管理和组织。安全活动策划往往是质量和环境管理体系的框架内进行的。
Unit 2
System Safety Engineering
系统安全工程
1. System Safety
1.系统安全
Safety has been intentionally integrated into the design and development of many systems. In some instances, however, the safety realized in a system was only a byproduct of good engineering practice. As systems have become more complex and expensive, safety problems have become more acute. Because of accelerating technology and demands for a “first time safe” operation, a need has arisen to formally organize safety efforts throughout a system's life cycle. To meet this need, the concepts of system safety and the field of system safety engineering have evolved.
安全性已经被有意地整合到许多系统的设计和开发中。然而，在有些情况下，安全系统中安全性的实现要通过良好的工程实践。随着系统变得更加复杂和价格更加昂贵，安全问题则变得更加尖锐。因为加速技术是“第一次安全”的操作需求，有必要正式的开发组织安全工作在整个系统的生命周期。为了满足这种需求，系统安全和系统安全工程的概念已经逐渐演变而来。
System safety concepts are based on the idea that an optimum degree of safety can be achieved within the constraints of system effectiveness. This optimum is attained through a logical reasoning process. Accidents, or potential accidents, are first considered to be the result of a number of interacting causes within the system. From a deliberate analysis of the system，each accident cause and interaction is logically identified and evaluated. Work may then be performed to eliminate or otherwise control these accident causes.
系统安全的概念是基于在系统效率的约束中可实现一个最佳安全等级的想法。这个最佳的是通过一个逻辑推理过程来实现。意外事故，或事故隐患，首先被认为是系统内数字的相互作用导致的结果。从详细的系统分析来看，每个事故造成的原因和相互作用进行逻辑被识别和评估。工作之后可以执行来消除或以其它方式控制这些事故的发生。
System safety engineering draws upon system safety concepts and the approaches used in system engineering. Its objective is to safely integrate all system components in a manner consistent with other system criteria. It involves the application of scientific and management principles for the timely recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards. Through the logical programming of these efforts over a system's life cycle，the desired level of safety can be realized.
系统安全工程借鉴了系统的安全观念和系统的工程所使用的方法用于系统安全工程。其目的是在符合其他系统标准的方式中安全地整合所有系统组件。它涉及应用科学和管理法则为了及时辨识，评价和控制危险源。在系统的生命周期中通过对工作的合理计划，来达到对安全程度的期望。
2. System Safety Program
2、系统安全程序
The degree of safety achieved in a system depends on the importance it is given by system designers, managers, and operators. The efforts necessary to assure that sufficient emphasis is placed on system safety are often organized into formal programs. The objectives of such programs are to recognize，evaluate，and control system hazards as early in the life cycle as possible. Adequate safety input during the initial phases is the key to produce an inherently safe system. Effective system safety programs also eliminate the schedule delays and costly changes that often result in systems that do not have adequate safety planning.
在一个系统中安全受重视的程度取决于系统设计者、管理者和执行者。我们必须要做的工作通常组织成正式的文件，这些成果确定了有效的强调作用。这些规划文件的目标是为了在他的生命周期中尽可能早的辨识、评价和控制系统危险源.。足够的安全投入在最初阶段是形成本质安全体系的关键。有效的系统安全规划能够消除由于缺乏足够安全规划所引起的进度上的拖延和由于变化所引起的昂贵的花费。
Concept Phase. Program activities in the concept phase include establishing safety criteria within the definition of the system task. These criteria normally provide for compliance with accepted safety standards such as those contained in government regulations. The maximum risks that are acceptable in system operation may also be specified in the task definition. A gross hazard analysis is often performed for each alternative approach to system design. The results of these analyses highlight special areas for safety consideration and are useful in evaluating each alternative. Knowledge of the safety experience of related systems will also aid in selecting the best alternative. In addition，program requirements and schedules for the remainder of the life cycle are established in the concept phase.
概念阶段。组织活动在概念阶段包括根据系统任务建立安全标准。这些标准通常是为我们所接受的标准做准备，例如说国家政府规定的规章制度、准则。在系统操作中能被我们所接受的最高的风险在任务的设计中要明确的规定。对每一个系统设计和选择的方法我们都要开展整体的危险源分析。这些分析结果强调这些特别的安全领域和有助于我们评价每一种方法。关于相关系统安全知识的经验也有助于选择最好的。另外，其余环节的工作需求和计划安排在概念阶段的周期中也要建立起来。
Design Phase. equipment specifications, maintenance plans，training plans, proposed system procedures, and other design materials arc reviewed and evaluated during the design phase. Extensive hazard analyses are also conducted to identify and resolve potential safety problems. All system components and interactions are studied to predict the risks that will be involved in system operation. Design changes are then made to minimize these risks. Knowledge of similar systems is also helpful in this phase. Of particular interest are measures taken to correct design features that resulted in accidents. Similar accidents may be avoided by including the same corrective measures in the specifications that emerge from the design phase.
设计阶段。设备规格、维护计划、培训计划、提出系统程序、和其他设计原材料的检查评估也是在设计阶段进行的。广泛的危险源分析也有助于识别和解决潜在的安全问题。研究所有系统组成部分和相互作用预测系统运行中将会涉及到的风险。通过更改设计将风险最小化。在这一阶段类似的系统知识也很有帮助。我们采取一些措施为了纠正可能会造成事故的设计上的特点是尤其有意义的。在设计阶段发现的问题说明书中如果相关的补救措施也写进去的话类似的一些事故也可以避免。
Development Phase. During the development phase, system safety programs assure that
the design requirements are incorporated as the system is generated. Hazard analyses are performed or updated. Additional studies or tests are conducted to verify the adequacy of safety design features. Training courses for operating personnel are reviewed to confirm that there is satisfactory coverage of safety aspects. Refinements of system design often result from these evaluations to improve system safety prior to the operation phase.
发展阶段。在发展阶段，系统安全规划保证了系统形成时设计要求已经整合。开展或更新危险源分析。进一步的研究或试验进行验证安全设计是否足够。对操作人员的培训课程进行审查，以确认在安全方面是否有令人满意的覆盖面。系统设计的改进往往是通过这些评估结果在运行阶段之前改善系统的安全性。
Operation Phase. Periodic safety inspections, maintenance, training, and performance reviews are conducted in the operation phase to maintain or improve the safety achieved previously. Hazard analyses are updated to determine the impact of any system changes, and action is taken to control any hazards that result from such changes. Similar action is taken following any accident or malfunction to correct deficiencies that have been overlooked.
运作阶段。在运行阶段进行定期安全检查，维修，培训和绩效评估，以维持或改善先前达到的安全。危险源分析的更新，是为了确定任何系统变化的影响，并采取行动以控制导致这些变化的任何危害。在任何事故或故障中采取类似的行动，以纠正那些被忽略的缺陷
Disposal Phase. Program efforts are continued through the final phase of the life cycle. System disposal procedures are reviewed and monitored. Special precautions are taken in disposing of hazardous materials, equipment, etc.
处置阶段。方案在生命周期的最后阶段中仍能继续进行。系统处理程序进行审查和监督。采取特别措施处理危险品、设备等。
3.Hazard Analysis
3、危险源分析
The heart of a system safety program is in the performance of hazard analyses. These efforts also involve most of the detail work of system safety engineering. Analyses are conducted to identify and evaluate hazards within a system. With this information, responsible officials may determine the safest, most efficient means of controlling the hazards identified. With its accident sources eliminated, the entire system also becomes more effective in performing its task. In general, hazard analyses are conducted as follows ：
系统安全计划的核心是危险源分析。这些工作还涉及到大多数系统安全工程的细节。进行分析，以在系统中识别和评估危险。有了这些信息，负责的管理人员可以决定控制危险源的最安全，最有效的手段。凭借对其事故源的消除，整个系统也变得可以更加有效地执行其任务。在一般情况下，风险的分析是如下这样进行的：
Gain an understanding of the system.
Define the scope and purpose of the analysis.
Select and apply an analysis technique.
Evaluate the results.
获取对系统的理解。
定义分析的范围和目的。
选择并应用分析技术。
评估结果。
Hazard analysis is not an intuitive process. For an analysis to be meaningful, it must be
通信工程专业英语翻译
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Professional Words and Expressions 1. a code of ethics 道德规范 2.absolute accuracy 绝对精度 3.abstract n. 摘要 4.accountant n. 会计（员），会计师 5.action learning 行动学习 6.adherence n. 忠诚 7.afterwards adv. 之后，以后，后来 8.AGV(Automated Guided Vehicles) 自动导航小车 9.aligning results 校正结果 10.alternation ranking method 交替排序法 11.AM(Agile Manufacturing)敏捷制造 12.analyst n. 分析者；善于分析者；分解者 13.anatomical adj. 解剖的，解剖学 14.annual bonus 年终分红 15.anthropometric adj. 人体测量的 16.anthropometry n. 人体测量学 17.appeal n. 申诉，请求，呼吁，上诉，要求 18.application forms 工作申请表 19.appraisal interview 评价面试 20.appreciation n. 正确评价 21.aptitudes n. 资质
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效 Most senior executive 高级主管 Supervisory level 监督层Safety principle 安全规则Wall-board 公告栏Implement plan 执行计划Hazard identification 危险辨识 Safety performance 安全性能 One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said the organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions – invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration –that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” 译文：Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of , an organization’s health and safety management. 译文：组织的安全文化由以下几项内容组成：个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和行为方式。这种行为方式决定了个人或团体对组织健康安全管理的责任，以及组织健康安全管理的形式和熟练程度。 Unit 2 System Safety Engineering System safety engineering 系统安全工程By-product 附带产生的结果
工业工程专业英语1-3单元翻译
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通信工程项目毕业材料外文翻译
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公司英语 -----教育训练部一:常用术语 Hon Hai 鸿海 CMM Component module move 机动组件整合 CEM Contract Manufaction service 合约委托代工 IBSC Internet Business Solution Center 国际互联网应用中心PCEG Personal Computer Enclosure group 个人计算机外设事业群（FOXTEQ） CCBG Connector&cable business group CPBG Competition business group ESBG Enterprise system business group 鸿富锦事业群 SABG system assembly business group 系统组装事业群 NWE Net Work Enclosure NSE Network system enclosure NSG Network system group NFE Network flexible enclosure Foxcavity = HZ = Hong Zhun 鸿准 Stamping tool shop I 冲模一厂 Stamping tool shop II 冲模二厂 Prototype workshop 样品中心 Steel factory 裁剪厂 PCE molding tooling workshop PCE塑模厂 Hua Nan test and measurement center 华南检测中心 MPE mobile phone enclosure MPE MBE mobile phone and notebook enclosure 明塑厂 MGE Alloy magnesium alloy enclosure 镁合金 Engineer standard 工标 Document center (database center)资料中心 Design Center 设计中心 Painting 烤漆(厂) Assembly组装(厂) Stamping 冲压(厂) Education and Training教育训练 proposal improvement/creative suggestion提案改善
安全工程专业英语词汇及翻译(司鹄版)
Unit6 Industry hygiene工业卫生physical hazard物理危害、物质危害nonionizing radiation非电离辐射adverse effects副作用loud noise嘈杂的声音chemical bum化学烧伤live electrical circuits 带电电路confined space密闭空间hearing loss听力丧失physical or mental disturbance身体或精神障碍annoyance烦恼power tools电动工具impulse脉冲sound level meter噪声计jet engine喷气式发动机time-weighted average时间加权平均heat stress热应力、热威胁shivering 颤抖hard labor辛苦工作fatigued疲劳的living tissue活组织plastic sealer塑料密封机biological hazard生物危害potable water饮用水sewage污水physical contact身体接触allergic reaction 过敏反应severe pain剧烈疼痛manual handing手工处理airborne空中的on a daily basis每天hazard communication standard危害通识规定stipulation规定、条款trade name商标名 工业卫生被定义为：“致力于预测、识别、评估和控制环境因素或压力的科学与技术，这些压力产生或来自与工作场所，能够造成疾病、损害人们的幸福安康、或是工程或社区居民的工作效率不高，并使他们感觉到很不舒服。（P67） 当噪音导致暂时或永久的听力丧失，使身体或精神发生紊乱，对语言交流产生干扰，或对工作、休息、放松、睡觉产生干扰时，它是一种非常严重的危害。噪音是任何不被期望的声音，它通常是一种强度变化但不包括任何信息的声音。他干扰人们对正常声音的辨别，可能是有害的，能使人烦恼，并干扰人们说话。（P68） Unit9 Accident investigation事故调查after-the-fact事实背后的take an investigation进行调查fact-finding process寻找事实的过程insurance carrier保险公司/承保人plance blame推卸责任permanent total disability永久全部劳动力丧失for simplicity为简单起见accident prevention 事故预防investigation procedures调查过程fact finding寻找事实operating procedures flow diagrams操作过程流程图maintenance chart维修图表bound notebook活页笔记本physical or chemical law物理或化学定律table of contens 目录narrative叙事的counter-measure干预措施 调查人员在调查过程中从各方面收集证据，从证人、旁观者及一些相关报道中得到信息，在事故发生后尽快的找目击证人谈话，在事故现场遭到改变前进行检查，对事故场景进行拍照并绘制草图，记录与地形相关的所有数据，并将所有的报道复印保存。记录常规的操作流程图、维修图表或对困难、异常现象的报告等非常有用。在活页笔记本中完整准确地记录。记录事故发生前的环境、事故顺序及事故发生后的环境情况等。另外，记录伤者、证人、机械能量来源和危害物质的位置。（P119） Unit10 Safety electricity安全用电electrical equipment电力设备fuse puller保险丝夹break contact断开接点/触电hot side高压端load side 负荷端line side线路/火线端groundfault circuit Interrupt 漏电保护器ground fault接地故障receptacle电源插座hot bubs热水澡桶underwater lighting水底照明fountains 人工喷泉ungrounded（hot）conductor 未接地（高压）单体/火线neutral conductor中性导体fault current载荷中心panelboard 配电板branch-circuit分支电路CB一种多功能插座plug-in插入式 上锁/挂牌成套设备也是可用的。上锁/挂牌套件中包含有必须满足OSHA上锁/挂牌标准的组件。上锁/挂牌套件中包含有可重复使用的危险标签、临时悬挂标志、各种闭锁、锁、磁性标志、及与上锁/挂牌相关的信息。无论什么原因停下工作或当天不能完成工作时，在返回
英语 安全工程专业翻译
Unit1 Safety Management Systems 1. Accident Causation Models The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
翻译： 5G无线通信网络的蜂窝结构和关键技术 摘要 第四代无线通信系统已经或者即将在许多国家部署。然而，随着无线移动设备和服务的激增，仍然有一些挑战尤其是4G所不能容纳的，例如像频谱危机和高能量消耗。无线系统设计师们面临着满足新型无线应用对高数据速率和机动性要求的持续性增长的需求，因此他们已经开始研究被期望于2020年后就能部署的第五代无线系统。在这篇文章里面，我们提出一个有内门和外门情景之分的潜在的蜂窝结构，并且讨论了多种可行性关于5G无线通信系统的技术，比如大量的MIMO技术，节能通信，认知的广播网络和可见光通信。面临潜在技术的未知挑战也被讨论了。 介绍 信息通信技术（ICT）创新合理的使用对世界经济的提高变得越来越重要。无线通信网络在全球ICT战略中也许是最挑剔的元素，并且支撑着很多其他的行业，它是世界上成长最快最有活力的行业之一。欧洲移动天文台（EMO）报道2010年移动通信业总计税收1740亿欧元,从而超过了航空航天业和制药业。无线技术的发展大大提高了人们在商业运作和社交功能方面通信和生活的能力无线移动通信的显著成就表现在技术创新的快速步伐。从1991年二代移动通信系统(2G)的初次登场到2001年三代系统（3G）的首次起飞，无线移动网络已经实现了从一个纯粹的技术系统到一个能承载大量多媒体内容网络的转变。4G无线系统被设计出来用来满足IMT-A技术使用IP面向所有服务的需求。在4G系统中，先进的无线接口被用于正交频分复用技术（OFDM），多输入多输出系统（MIMO）和链路自适应技术。4G无线网络可支持数据速率可达1Gb/s的低流度，比如流动局域无线访问，还有速率高达100M/s的高流速，例如像移动访问。LTE系统和它的延伸系统LTE-A，作为实用的4G系统已经在全球于最近期或不久的将来部署。 然而，每年仍然有戏剧性增长数量的用户支持移动宽频带系统。越来越多的
公司英语词汇大全(doc 14页)
公司英语 -----教育训练部 一:常用术语 Hon Hai 鸿海 CMM Component module move 机动组件整合 CEM Contract Manufaction service 合约委托代工 IBSC Internet Business Solution Center 国际互联网应用中心 PCEG Personal Computer Enclosure group 个人计算机外设事业群（FOXTEQ）CCBG Connector&cable business group CPBG Competition business group ESBG Enterprise system business group 鸿富锦事业群 SABG system assembly business group 系统组装事业群 NWE Net Work Enclosure NSE Network system enclosure NSG Network system group NFE Network flexible enclosure Foxcavity = HZ = Hong Zhun 鸿准 Stamping tool shop I 冲模一厂 Stamping tool shop II 冲模二厂 Prototype workshop 样品中心 Steel factory 裁剪厂 PCE molding tooling workshop PCE塑模厂 Hua Nan test and measurement center 华南检测中心 MPE mobile phone enclosure MPE MBE mobile phone and notebook enclosure 明塑厂 MGE Alloy magnesium alloy enclosure 镁合金 Engineer standard 工标 Document center (database center)资料中心 Design Center 设计中心 Painting 烤漆(厂) Assembly组装(厂) Stamping 冲压(厂) Education and Training教育训练 proposal improvement/creative suggestion提案改善 Technological exchange and study 技术交流研习会 Technology and Development Committee 技术发展委员会 BS Brain Storming 脑力激荡 QCC Quality Control Circle 品质圈
安全工程专业外语翻译
The major contributors in component technology have been the semi-conductor components． （译为“起主要作用”，不译“主要贡献者”。） There are three steps which must be taken before we graduate from the integrated circuit technology. （译为“完全掌握”，不译“毕业于”。） The purpose of a driller is to holes. （译为“钻孔”） A single-point cutting tool is used to cut threads on engine lathes. （译为“车”） The major contributors in component technology have been the semi-conductor components． （译为“起主要作用”，不译“主要贡献者”。） There are three steps which must be taken before we graduate from the integrated circuit technology. （译为“完全掌握”，不译“毕业于”。） The iron ore used to make steel comes from open-pit and underground mines. （译为“炼钢”，不译“制造刚”。） An insulator offers a very high resistance to the passage through which electric current goes. （译为“很大阻力”，不译“高阻力”） Mater can be changed into energy, and energy into mater. 物质可以转换为能，能也可以转化为物质。 The best conductor has the least resistance and the poorest has the greatest. 最好的导体电阻最小，最差的导体电阻最大。 If A is equal to D, A plus B equals D plus B. 若A=D，则A+B=D+B。 The first electronic computers used vacuum tubes and other components, and this made the equipment very large and bulky. 第一代电子计算机使用真空管和其他元件，这使得设备又大又笨。 Oxidation will make iron and steel rusty. 氧化作用会使钢铁生锈。 The cost of such a power plant is a relatively small portion of the total cost of the development. 这样一个发电站的修建费用仅占该开发工程总费用的一小部分。 The resistance of the pipe to the flow of water through it depends upon the length of the pipe, the diameter of the pipe, and the feature of the inside walls（rough or smooth）。 水管对通过的水流的阻力取决于下列三个因素：管道长度、管道直径、管道内壁的特性（粗糙或光滑）。Heat from the sun stirs up the atmosphere, generating winds. 太阳发出的热能搅动大气，于是产生了风。 In general, all the metals are good conductors, with silver the best and copper the second. 一般来说，金属都是良导体，其中以银为最好，铜次之。 The world of work injury insurance is complex. 工伤保险是复杂的。 Any substance is made of atoms whether it is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. 任何物质，不论是固体、液体或是气体，都是有原子组成的。 In the absence of force, a body will either remain at rest, or continue to move with constant speed in a straight line. 无外力作用，物体则保持静止状态，或作匀速直线运动。 A wire lengthens while it is heated. 金属丝受热则伸长。 Practically all substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. 几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。
安全工程专业外语翻译
Unit 1 Safety Management Systems 安全管理体系 1.Accident Causation Models 1.事故致因理论 The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment. 安全管理系统最重要的目的是维护和促进工人们在工作时的健康和安全。在制定预防性计划时，了解为什么、怎样做和其他意外事故的发展是十分重要的。事故致因理论旨在阐明事故现象，和解释事故的机理。所有现代理论都是基于试图解释事件发生、发展过程和最终引起损失的事故致因理论。在古老的时期，事故被看做是上帝的行为并且几乎没有预防的方法去阻止他们。在20世纪开始的时候，人们开始相信差的物理条件是事故发生的根源。安全从业人员集中注意力在提高机器监护、维护和清理上。在大多数情况下，一件事故的发生主要有两个原因：人类的行为和物理或者社会环境。 Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s operation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays，this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work. 彼得森根据管理体系中个人的行为结合当地的环境扩充了事故致因理论。他的结论是像不安全行为、不安全情况是一些错误的组织管理系统导致事故的征兆。另外，他指出，高层管理人员负责建立一个能够有效控制危险源有关组织。一个人出现的错误可能是有意的或者是无意的。拉斯姆森和杰森已经提出了三个层次的技能规则知识模型来描述不同种类的人错误的起源。如今，这种模式已经成为在工作中检验人的错误的标准之一。 Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely to suffer anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919，based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominated the safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamed solely
外文翻译通信工程英文的毕业设计论文
编号： 毕业设计(论文)外文翻译 （译文） 学院：信息与通信学院 专业：通信工程 学生姓名： 学号： 指导教师单位：信息与通信学院 姓名： 职称： 2014年 2 月9 日 Radio network planning process and methods for WCDMA Abstract This paper describes the system dimensioning and the radio network planning methodology for a third generation WCDMA system. The applicability of each method is demonstrated using examples of likely system scenarios. The challenges of
modeling the multiservice environment are described and the implications to the system performance simulations are introduced. Keywords: Telecommunication network planning, Mobile radio- communication, Code division multiple access, Wide band transmission, Multiple service network, Dimensioning, Simulator, Static model, Dynamic model, Cellular network. Resume(?) Contents I.Introduction II. Initial planning, system dimensioning III. Detailed planning process IV. Example dimensioning case and verification of dimensioning with static simulations V. Comparison of a static to a dynamic network simulator VI. Conclusion INTRODUCTION As the launch of third generation technology approaches, operators are forming strategies for the deployment of their networks. These strategies must be supported by realistic business plans both in terms of future service demand estimates and the requirement for investment in network infrastructure. Evaluating the requirement for network infrastructure can be achieved using system dimensioning tools capable of assessing both the radio access and the core network components. Having found an attractive business opportunity, system deployment must be preceded by careful network planning. The network planning tool must be capable of accurately modeling the system behaviour when loaded with the expected traffic profile. The third generation cellular systems will offer services well beyond the capabilities of today's networks. The traffic profile, as well as the radio access technology itself form the two most significant challenges when dimensioning and planning a WCDMA based third generation system. The traffic profile describes the mixture of services being used by the population of users. There are also specific system functionalities which must be modelled including fast power control and soft handover. In order to accurately predict the radio coverage the system eatures associated with WCDMA must be taken into account in the network modeling process. Especially the channel characterization, and interference control mechanisms in the case of any CDMA system must be considered. In WCDMA network multiple services co-exist. Different services (voice, data) have different processing gains, Eb/N0 performance and thus different receiver SNR requirements. In addition to those the WCDMA coverage depends on the load characterization, hand over parameterization, and power control effects. In current second generation systems' coverage planning processes the base station sensitivity is constant and the coverage threshold is the same for each base station. In the case of WCDMA the coverage threshold is dependent on the number of users and used bit rates in all cells, thus it