热奈特叙事话语重点概念精简
热奈特叙事话语重点概念精简版
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目录
Narrative Discourse (4)
Chapter One order (7)
Chapter Two Duration (11)
Chapter Three Frequency (15)
Chapter Four Mood (17)
Chapter Five V oice (21)
Narrative Discourse
By Gerard Genette Pbed in 1980 Narratology denotes both the theory and the study of narrative and narrative structure and the ways that these affect our perception. As a matter of fact, this word is an anglicisation of French word narratologie, coined by Tzvetan Todorov (Grammaire du Décaméron, 1969). Since the 1960’s, the contemporary narrative theory has been rapidly developing towards maturity, in which French structuralist critic Gerard Genette plays a pivotal role. On the basis of absorbing the other s’ research results, he constructs his own narrative theory, whose origin mainly includes Saussure Linguistics, Structuralism, Russian Formalism, and New Criticism.
Russian formalists argue that the literary characteristic is not what to write but how to write. Literary narrative mainly includes “sjuzhet” (plot) and “fa bula” (usually refers to story. Fabula and sjuzhet (also syuzhet, sujet, sju?et, or suzet) are terms originating in Russian Formalism and employed in narratology that describe narrative construction. Sjuzhet is an employment of narrative and fabula is the order of retelling events. They were first used in this sense by Vladimir Propp and Shklovsky.). And the plot determines the story. On the basis of this formalist concept, Propp places emphasis on form and structure of works in his Morphology of the Folktale (1928). But he only takes note of the syntactic relationship of the surface of the story. Later Gremas, Levi Strauss, and French narratologist Bremond carry out a series of comprehensive researches on the relationship between the surface and deep structures of the story, and sum up a wide variety of grammatical patterns of the story. Though large and vague, these narrative structure models provide a great reference for Genette. New Criticism representatives Brooks and Warren collaborate on Understanding Fiction(1979), put forward the question of “who speaks”, and hence draw forth the concept of “focus of narration”, which lays a solid
foundation for Genette’s "focalization" theory. Moreover, as far as the study of the narrative formula, it is obvious that Genette is influenced by Wayne Booth's The Rhetoric of Fiction (1983). However, in terms of the narrative form, Booth has a similar view to New Critics.
Accepting and absorbing the above-mentioned scholars’advantages and strengths, Genette published Narrative Discourse in 1972, which makes Marcel Proust’s In search of Lost Time the research object and proposes his own unique narrative outlook. In the book, at first he indicates that narrative contains three distinct notions, namely, narrative, story and narrating, and further distinguishes them. Narrative refers to narrative discourse, which means “the narrative statement, the oral or written discourse that undertakes to tell of an event or a series of events”(Genette, 1980: 25). Story means an event or a series of events told in narrative discourse, real of fictitious. Narrating is the act of someone recounting something. To analyzing narrative discourse is, essentially, to study the relationship between narrative and story, between narrative and narrating, and between story and narrating.
Excluding Introduction and Afterword, Narrative Discourse is divided into five chapters, which are Order, Frequency, Duration, Mood, and V oice in turn. In the five chapters, Genette at length analyzes the artistic techniques of In search of Lost Time, and hence summarizes and establishes a set of his own narratology. Genette incorporates French structuralist narrative theories, constructs rather comprehensive and systematic narrative theory, and thus lays a solid foundation for contemporary narratology. It is under the influence of his narrative discourse that many subsequent scholars and experts such as Miede Bal, Gerald Prince, and Rimmon-Kenan further explore and deeply dig the narrative theories. These scholars speak highly of his narrative discourse, and in the meantime put forward some doubts and challenges, in view of which Genette also published Nouveau discours du récit (new narrative discourse) in 1983 as a response. In this new narrative discourse, he discusses such questions as the classification of person, the application of the present tense, the interrelation between
mood and voice, and focalization, and consequently interprets and perfects his narrative theory.
In short, Genette presents a lot of concepts which has become the standard terms of classic in the narrative field. Besides, the publication of his Narrative Discourse has aroused strong reaction and sensation in the literary theory circle. According to his narrative theory, many analyze and interpret the specific works and bear great fruit.
Chapter One order
Time is thought of as a uni-directional and irreversible flow, a sort of one-way street, just as Heraclitus said early in western history: “You cannot step twice into the same river, for other waters and yet other waters go ever flowing on.” However, as far as narrative activity is concerned, “the time of even the simplest story escapes the ordinary notion of time conceived as a series of instants succeeding one another along an abstract line oriented in a single direction” (Ricoeur, 1980: 169). Narrative is the art of TIME, which is the main subject that the majority of structuralist narratological works dwell on. In narratives, TIME can be defined as the relations of chronology between story and text, possessing the duality, namely, the time of the thing told and the time of the narrative. German theoreticians refers to this kind of temporal duality as the opposition between “erz?hlte Zeit” (story time)and Erz?hlzeit (narrative time). In Les catégories du récit littéraire, Todorov divides the narrative into three categories: tense, aspect, and mood. Here the tense means the relationship between the story time and the discourse time.
In Narrative Discourse, Genette spends almost half of the book researching TIME( from p.33 to p.160). According to Genette, time can be viewed in three respects: order, duration and frequency, under which he sets out to examine the relations between the story time and the text time.
Definition of Order
According to Genette, to “study the temporal order of a narrative is to compare the order in which events or temporal sections are arranged in the narrative discourse with the order of succession these same events or temporal segments have in the story” (Genette, 1980: 35).
Actually, the order is intended for exploring the relations between the story time and the narrative time. In Genette’s terms, the main types of discrepancy between them are called anachronies, which mainly include three types: analepsis, prolepsis, and achrony.
An analepsis is “any evocation after the fact of an event that took place earlier than the point in the story where we are at any given moment” (Genette, 1980: 40). That is to say, it is a narration of story-event at a point in the text after later events have been told. This narration goes back to a past point in the story. A prolepsis is “any narrative maneuver that consists of narrating or evoking in advance an event that will take place later”(Genette, 40). It is a narration of story-event at a point before earlier events have been mentioned. The narration takes an excursion into the future of the story. In order to determine the anachrony, Genette introduces two concepts:reach and extent. The former refers to the temporal distance far from the “present” moment, when an anachrony appears, whether analeptic or proleptic. The latter means the duration of story covered by the anachrony. If reach and extent of an (or mainly isolated) event can not be clearly determined, the event is dateless and ageless. This kind of anachrony deprived of temporal connection is called an achrony.
According to Genette, every anachrony is made up of a narrative that is temporally second, namely, “second narrative”. With respect to the anachrony, “the totality of the context can be taken as first narrative”(Genette, 1980: 49). Based on the differences between an analepsis and the first narrative in reach an extent, Genette classifies analepses into three types: external analepsis, internal analepsis and mixed analepsis.
External analepsis means its “entire extent remains external to the extent of the first narrative” (Genette, 1980: 49). The second analepsis is, in Genette’s terms, internal analepsis, whose temporal departure and extent are within the first narrative. The third analepsis referred to by Genette is called mixed analepsis, whose “reach goes back to a point earlier and whose extent arrives at a point later than the beginning of the first narrative” (Genette, 1980: 49). In
others words, if the period covered by the analepsis begins before the starting point of the first narrative but at a later stage either joints it or goes beyond it, then the analepsis is considered “mixed”. On the whole, analepses can add the narrative capacity in unit of time. It, more often than not, contains the rich and long train of thoughts and the diverse and confused past. world.
Apart from analepses, the second common form of anachronies is prolepses, which can be defined as “any evocation after the fact of an event that took place earlier than the point in the story where we are at any given moment”(Genette, 1980: 40). Prolepses are a kind of anticipation or a hint at the future event. Like analepses, prolepses are also divided into external prolepses and internal prolepses.
The limit of the temporal field of the first narrative is clearly marked by the last non-proleptic scene and some events take place after this scene. As opposed to external prolepses, internal prolepses can be designated as some episodes told earlier than the last non-proleptic scene of the story.
Achrony
In such anachronies as analepses and prolepses, their reach and extent can essentially be confirmed. However, in the achrony, the events “express the narrative’s capacity to disengage its arrangement from all dependence on the chronological sequence of the story it tells.”(Genette, 1980: 84) From the context, readers cannot obtain any inference. It is an anachrony deprived of every temporal connection. In achronies, the most outstanding way is “synchrony”, which brings the story time upon the same plane, blurs the linear relation of time and highlights the spatiality of the event. Genette insists, “Proleptic analepses and analeptic prolepses are so many complex anachroies, and they somewhat disturb our reassuring ideas about retrospection and anticipation…some events not provided with any temporal reference whatsoever, events that we cannot place at all in relation to the events
surrounding them…they need only be attached not to some other event but to the (atemporal) commentarial discourse that accompanies them.” (Genette, 1980: 83)
Another form of achronies is the atemporal commentarial discourse. Expounding the achronies in Marcel Proust’s In search of Lost Time, Genette points out that the narrative order of the story has no connection to the temporal order of the events, or only a partially coincidental connection. “The truth is that the narrator had the clearest of reasons for grouping together, in defiance of all chronology, events to be connected by spatial proximity, by climatic identity, or by thematic kinship; he thus made clear, more than anyone had done before him and better than they had, narrative’s capacity for temporal autonomy.” (Genette, 1980: 85)
词汇学的基本知识
词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
词汇学学习心得
现代汉语词汇学学习心得 本篇文章分为二个部分，第一部分主要来谈谈学习现代汉语词汇学课程的感想和收获，第二部分阐述我在学习了这门课程后对于如何进行对外汉语词汇教学的一些思考。 一．学习现代汉语词汇学课程的感想和收获 对于现代汉语词汇我们不是第一次接触了，早在大一的现代汉语课上就已经有所涉及。但那都是很笼统的讲到，并没有做具体的分析研究,到了大三下学期才单独开设了现代汉语词汇学这门课程。在上这门课程前，就听学姐学长讲过词汇学很难，在学了这门课之后深有体会。记得在一开始的练习中就碰到了困难，如分析哪些是词自己就有点糊涂了，原因是自己还没有弄清楚词的具体该概念，即确定词的的一般方法，尤其是在扩展法上会出现问题。但后来经过讨论，老师讲解，自己终于有所领悟。虽然在学习的当中会碰到很多难题，但通过一学期的学习，自己也有很多收获。 首先来谈谈教材，我们词汇学选符准青的《现代汉语词汇》增订本就是一本很好的教材。它的编订很合理，内容很详细，每章后都附有练习，有助于我们巩固我们所学的知识。除了解决词汇学中的一般问题，另外还提出了很多疑难问题让我们注意，这是其他教材很难做到的。例如第一章节疑难问题就提出具有争议的问题，如何确定述补结构（吃饱打倒）等是不是词的问题，这些疑难问题对于我们真正把握词的概念，拓展我们的思维有很大帮助。 其次，我也非常庆幸遇到一位优秀的老师来教授我们这么课程。老师
有着扎实的专业基础知识和丰富的对外汉语教学经验，所以知道怎样使我们很好的接受那些词汇学知识，更重要的是我们能够将学到的知识理论应用于实际。在学习的过程，老师并没有像填鸭子似地把知识抛给我们，而是时不时的给我们提一个问题，让我们去思考，虽然最后我们的答案并不尽人意，但至少给了我们一个锻炼思考能力及分析问题的机会。在学习过程中老师一直强调我们不要读死书，要学会思考，这本书固然有它的优点，也存在一定的缺点，我们要取其精华，剔其糟粕。例如在学习第七章词汇划分问题上，老师就告诉我们书上的词汇划分不科学，对于基本词汇和一般词汇的定义模糊，但在基本词汇的特点上有可取之处，基本词汇具有普遍性，稳固性和构成新词的基础，这一点很可取。 再者，学习这门课程后我认识到词汇学的重要性，词汇学最为一门单独的专业课程开设是很有必要的。现代汉语词汇是不断丰富发展变化着的。社会生活的发展，包括新事物的出现，旧事物消灭，阶级斗争的发展；人的思想意识的发展；语言内部各个因素的相互作用等等。现代汉语词汇是历代积累传承下来的大量词语和和不断产生的大量词语组合起来的整体。学习现代汉语词汇有着十分重要的意义，它让我们意识到词汇的重要性，提高我们的表达能力、语言能力，而且有助于语文教学，词汇教学在语文教学中占有重要位置。要引导学习者掌握丰富的词语，正确理解词语的意义，正确运用词语，就要利用现代汉语词汇学所学的各种知识。因此，一定要通过自身的努力学好掌握好这门学问。 最后，通过这门课程的学习，我对怎样才能学好现代汉语词汇学有了一些体会。虽然这门课程即将结束，但学问是无穷无尽的，这门课程只是为我们打开了学习词汇学的一个窗口，在平时我们还应当坚持课后自主学习，因此掌握一些学习词汇学的方法尤为重要。
聆听叙事中的声音和叙述话语
龙源期刊网 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d511729510.html, 聆听叙事中的声音和叙述话语 作者：杜鹃 来源：《现代语文(语言研究)》2011年第08期 摘要：本文试图通过解析《关键时刻》①中的“声音”和叙述话语之间的关系，力图说明“声音”和叙述话语何以作为叙事的组成部分在叙事中发挥着各自的作用。探讨“声音”和叙述话语以特定谈话和叙述的方式在叙事进程中与其他因素的关系和相关的价值意义，并关注文中的语言技巧。试图表明参与叙事进程是如何帮助读者理解故事叙事的独特性和语言中的深层意义。 关键词：叙事中的“声音” 叙述话语文体 一、引言 关键时刻可能会改变一个人一生的命运，错过了这一时刻将再难有此机会。关键时刻也能看出每个人不同的性格、态度、素质和应变能力：有些人遇事可能会表现勇敢；有些人可能会胆怯；有些人可采取明智的战略并做出非常明智的决定，而有些人遇事恐慌、不知所措。 《关键时刻》一文的作者让一名亲历了一次重大的天然气泄漏事件的消防队员出场，给我们讲述了一个动人的故事：当查出一座大楼内出现天然气泄漏时，他便意识到该大楼随时有可能爆炸，在这关键时刻他首先想到的是同事的四个孩子的生命安危，而不是他自己的生命安全。在经历了这次事件后，他认识到作为一个消防队员的价值就体现在这关键的时刻。 围绕着“关键时刻”这个主题，作者在让叙述者讲述故事中始终把“声音”和叙述的话语置在其中，并把“声音”和叙述的话语与人物、事件、过程等其他因素联系起来。虽然故事不以曲折有趣的情节吸引人，却具有一定的魅力。这种魅力是怎样形成的呢？本文将从叙事学与文体学相互补充、交互运用，从文中多种“声音”的功能、故事层与话语层交织的艺术和受述者三方面对文本进行解析。 二、《关键时刻》中多种“声音”的功能
故事外叙述与异故事叙述
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词汇学1
总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor 2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number.
《边城》的叙事频率分析
《边城》的叙事频率分析 内容摘要：叙事是在时间的畸变中重构故事，叙事时间是小说的重要因素。叙事频率是叙事时间的一个重要部分，沈从文的《边城》通过精心设计的叙事频率将“常”与“变”错综，在“常”与“变”的两相对照中构造了《边城》深刻的悲剧性。 关键词：《边城》叙事频率常与变 汪曾祺先生曾说：“‘边城’不只是一个地理概念……同时是一个时间概念”。①时间是线性存在的标记，时间让人们感知在历史中的存在。对时间的思考即是对生命的体验，时间是小说的重要因素。小说理论家伊丽莎白?鲍温在《小说家的技巧》中说：“我认为时间同故事人物具有同样重要的价值。凡是我能想到的真正懂得、或者本能地懂得小说技巧的作家，很少有人不对时间因素加以戏剧性地利用的。”②这种“戏剧性的利用”即作家对叙事时间的巧妙安排。叙事时间即“探讨叙事如何处理故事和时间的关系，以及各种处理对叙述故事及其意义生成的影响。”热奈特说：“叙事是一组有两个时间的序列……，被讲述的事情的时间和叙事的时间。”③一部叙事作品必然涉及到两种时间，即故事时间与叙事时间。故事时间是被叙述的故事本身原有的时间，属于自然时间。叙事时间是小说叙述故事所用的时间，即小说中
呈现的时间，是一种服从于叙事目的的人为时间。在具体文本中叙事时间大多与故事时间不相符。热奈特将二者之间的关系分为时序、时距、频率。 叙事频率是叙事时间的一个重要方面，叙事频率即“叙事与故事间的频率关系（简言之重复关系）。”④热奈特将叙事频率分成三种类型，单一叙事：即讲述一次发生过一次的事或讲述n次发生过n次的事情；重复叙事：n次讲述发生过一次的事，如：“昨天我睡得很早，昨我睡得很早，昨夭我睡得很早；反复叙事：一次（用一次讲述）发生过n次的事。反复叙事采取集叙格式，诸如：“每天”，“每周”，或“每一天我都睡得很早”，一次叙述从整体上承受同一事件的好几次出现。”叙事频率是《边城》叙事时间中一个比较突出的部分。通过叙事频率的设计，沈从文将常与变错综，在常与变中理性审视民族的过去、当前和未来。在“常变”对照中寄托理想、透露忧思，营造了边城独特而深刻的悲剧性。 一.反复叙事与“常” 沈从文常常在小说中使用反复叙事来表现湘西社会静 止不变的恒常状态。反复叙事即“一次叙述从整体上承受同一事件的好几次出现”的叙事方法。反复叙事通常采取集叙的格式，作家常常使用概括性词语和表示时间频率的副词来描写概括性、整体性的场景，普遍性和规律性的人物与事件。如《边城》中描写爷爷渡船的日常场景。“这渡船一次连人
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词汇学知识点总结
Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad
词汇学
lexicology 题型： 1.填空（30*1=30） 2.解释（10*1=10） 3.主观题（2*10=20） 4.分析词汇学现象（10） 5.翻译（15*2=30） 考点： Chapter 2 Language proper 1.Genetic classification p15: English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. 2.Structural classification: synthetic language & analytic language p22 A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections(变音，转调). An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections. Old English (OE 450-1100)synthetic language The history of English begins with the conquest and settlement of what is now England by the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes from about 450 AD. Characteristics of Old English: 1)They had complex inflectional systems for nouns, pronouns, articles, verbs, and adverbs. 2)They had great flexibility in sentence word order made possible by the extensive sets of inflections. Middle English (ME 1100-1500) The transitional period from Old English to Modern English is know as Middle English (ME 1100-1500), which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066. Middle English developed rapidly toward becoming an analytic language. Modern English analytic language The English language from 1500 to the present is called Modern English. Characteristics of Modern English 1)Great Vowel Shift ※ 2)Inflections continued to disappear, making Modern English an analytic language. 3)The word order of English sentences became more and more firmly fixed.
叙事学的几个基本概念
第一章叙事学的几个基本概念 一、什么是叙事学 “叙事”一词最早见于柏拉图的《理想国》，其中提出了对叙事进行的模仿（mimesis）/叙事（diegesis）的著名二分说。而“叙事学”一词最早由结构主义文学理论家托多罗夫提出。他在1969年发表的《〈十日谈〉语法》中写道：“……这部著作属于一门尚未存在的科学，我们暂且将这门科学取名为叙事学，即关于叙事作品的科学。” 其他关于叙事学的定义还包括：1.新版《罗伯特法语词典》对“叙事学”所下的定义：“关于叙事作品、叙述、叙述结构以及叙述性的理论。”2.七卷本的《大拉鲁斯法语词典》对“叙事学”的解释是“人们有时用它来指称关于文学作品结构的科学研究。”两种定义颇有出入，但它们都重视对文本的叙述结构的研究。3.托多洛夫：叙事学研究的对象是叙事的本质、形式、功能，无论这种叙事采取的是什么媒介，无论它使用的是文字、图画、声音。它着重研究的是叙事的普遍特征。尤其是故事的语法，即故事的普遍结构。4.热奈特：叙事学研究的范围只限于叙事文学，即以语言为媒介的叙事行为，它对故事不感兴趣，也不试图去概括故事的语法，而是着重研究反映在故事与叙事文本关系上的叙事话语，包括时序、语式、语态等。简单说来，叙述学就是关于叙述本文的理论，注重对故事和文本层面的研究。同时还着重对叙事文本作技术分析。 而叙事学作为一门学科正式确立是20世纪60年代，在结构主义与俄国形式主义影响下形成。它被明确定义为：“研究所有形式叙事中的共同叙事特征和个体差异特征，旨在描述控制叙事（及叙事过程）中与叙事相关的规则系统的学科。” 二、叙事学的起源及发展过程 1. 从思想渊源看，叙事学理论起源于20世纪20年代的俄国形式主义及弗拉基米尔·普洛普（Vladimir Propp）所开创的结构主义叙事先河。 首先，俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基等人发现了“故事”和“情节”之间的差异，“故事”指的是作品叙述的按实际时间顺序的所有事件，“情节”侧重指事件在作品中出现的实际情况，这些直接影响了叙事学对叙事作品结构层次的划分。他们提出“故事”和“情节”的概念来指代叙事作品的素材内容和表达形式，大致勾勒出其后经典叙事学研究所聚焦的故事与话语两个层面，以此来突出研究叙事作品中的技巧。其次，对叙事学影响直接、贡献最大的是俄国民俗学家、结构主义叙事学的先驱普洛普。他的代表作品《民间故事形态学》是叙事学的发轫之作。他通过对俄国100个民间故事的研究分析，打破了传统按人物和主题对童话进行分类的方法，认为故事中的基本单位不是人物而是人物在故事中的“功能”，由此从众多的俄国民间故事中分析出31个“叙事功能”。后来他的观点被列维—斯特劳斯接受并传到法国。 2.60年代，大量关于叙事作品结构分析的作品开始涌现。较著名的有：1.法国叙述符号学家格雷马斯于1966年出版的《结构语义学》一书，主要研究叙事结构和话语结构。2.法国符号学家罗兰·巴特也于1966年发表了著名的《叙事作品结构分析导论》。他在论文中提出将叙事作品分为三个描写层次，即功能层（作品系统中最小的叙述单位，是故事中以相关项面貌出现的切分成分）、行为层（人物层）、叙述层（描写叙述作品本身过程中叙述者和读者得以获取意义的代码），以此分析读者对文本的横向阅读和纵向阅读。这篇论文为之后的叙事学研究提出了纲领性的理论设想。 叙事学经过30多年的发展，已经自成体系并不断壮大。20世纪80年代又兴起了“后经典叙事学”即“新叙事学”，推进了叙事学的进一步开拓和发展。