语言学 期末考试考点一览
Chapter 1 Linguistics
定义
Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
▲Language distinguishes human beings from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.
Linguistics: the scientific study of human languages.
It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.
★注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。
Language is vocal
1) The primary medium for all languages is sound.
2) Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.
Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.
词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位
Design features 语言的定义特征
Design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. （定义填空题）
▲语言的四个Design features 也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征
A、Arbitrariness 任意性
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。
Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
（语素音义关系的任意性）
Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
（语言在句法层面是非任意性）【判断题】
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性
★任意性具有两个层面，而非any level !!! (判断题)
Arbitrarines s → Makes language potentially creative
language
convention→ Makes language systematic
B、Duality 双重性，二元性
Human language is productive or creative due to duality and recursiveness(递归性).（
The structural organization of language into two abstract levels:
?At the lower level (the secondary level) : meaningful units
?At the higher level (the primary level) : meaningless segments
Expression of duality:
? 1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic units
? 2. Combine small units into big units
C、Creativity 创造性
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. （recurse sentence）
Recursiveness：it refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without definite limit.
D、Displacement 移位性
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, which are not
present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时间或观点。
动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现
Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, on the contrary, stimulus free.(动物语言会受到直接刺激控制)
Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.
Functions of Language语言的功能
A、The informative function (信息功能)
Informative function: the major role of language; language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.
B、Interpersonal Function(人际功能)
Interpersonal Function: the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.
eg:Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant…等表称呼的
C、The performative function (施事功能):
The performative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.
用说话表示行为
D、The emotive function (情感功能):
The emotive function: one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
□标志性语句：swear word(誓言)、obscenities(侮辱之词)、involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery、conventional words/phrases,eg:
–God, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh 我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕
E、Phatic communion （寒暄功能）
The use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
? E.g. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.
F、The recreational function （娱乐功能）
The use of language for the sheer joy of using it
–such as a baby‘s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
G、Metalingual function (元语言功能)
Metalingual function：our language can be used to talk about itself, talking about talk and thinking about thinking.
–To be honest; on second thought; to tell you the truth; as a matter of fact; that is to say;
–Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in another way in argumentation.
?It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive (自我反身性)
Main branches of Linguistics (考查定义！！！)
1. Soun d →phonetics 语音
2. Sounds→phonology 音系学
3. Word →morphology 形态学
4. Words/sentence→syntax 句法学
5. Meaning→semantics 语义学
6. Meaning in a context→pragmatics 语用学（language in use）Macrolinguistics （微观语言学）
Psycholinguistics 心里语言学
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
distinctions in linguistics
A、Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 描述性与规定性
People say X. Descriptive（To describe the linguistic facts observed）
Don?t? say X. Prescriptive （To lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior）Modern linguistics is mostly Descriptive. 现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象
Tradition English belongs to Prescriptive.
B、Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性
A synchronic (共时的) description, the description of a language at some point in time, takes a fixed instant as its point of observation (static state).
? A Grammar of Modern Greek;
?The Structure of Shakespeare’s English
?English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.
?Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.
?The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.
Diachronic (历时的): the description of a language as it changes through time. (dynamic state) ?Pejorative (轻蔑语) Sense Development in English
?Pejorative Sense Development in English.
C、Langue & parole 语言和言语
Langue (language): 说话者的语言能力the generalized rules of language
Parole (speaking):语言上的实际表现the application of rules
D、Competence and performance
Competence: the ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language (语言能力)
就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。
Chapter 2 Speech sound
What are the three cavities of the vocal tract?
The pharyngeal cavity:咽腔The oral cavity:口腔The nasal cavity:鼻腔
G: velar（软腭音): 舌后部抬升抵住软腭所发出的音[k] [g] [?] [w]
?[k] as in …cat?[g] as in …get?[?]as in …sing?[w] as in …wet?
前元音：由舌的前部发出舌尖抵下齿，舌前部向硬腭抬起[i:] [i] [e] [?]
Consonants 辅音Vowels 元音
左边：voiceless 右边：voiced
Stop 爆破音Fricative 摩擦音Lateral 边音Affricate 塞擦音
会描述辅音，)
eg: [p] voiceless bilabial stop
[b] voiced bilabial stop
他们的共同特点是都具有bilabial stop
[∧] mid back lax ungrounded voel
broad transcription宽式音标与narrow transcription严式音标的区别
eg : peak [pi:k] broad transcription [p?i:k] narrow transcription
Minimal pairs (最小对立体）
Four requirements for identifying minimal pairs:
1) They have the same number of sound segments. a. 彼此的语音数量相等* (dip disk)
2) They are different in meaning. b. 彼此的意义不同
3) They differ only in one sound segment. c. 彼此仅存在一个语音的差异* (bit bad)
4) The different sounds occur in the same position in the strings. d.语音差异出现在同一位置上
●pill/bill; pill/till; till/kill; kill/dill/; dill/gill
●cut/but; big/peg; peak/leap
Phones (音素)
Phone: a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
Allophones: variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions.
The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
The minimal distinctive speech sounds--Phonemes
Variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.the non-distinctive speech sounds Two requirements for phones to fall into the same phoneme:满足allophones 的两个条件：
1) allophones of the same phoneme should be in complementary distribution. 必须形成互补关系
/l/ [l ] /______ V (clear l) eg: lead
[l ]/ V______ (dark l) eg: feel
●Not all the phones(sounds) in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones
of the same phoneme----
●they have no phonetic similarity.(成互补分布的不一定都属于同一音位）
发音近似
Assimilation (同化)
(1) within a syllable 音节内P42 ex.2-1---2-3
can [k?n] [?] ? [? ] / ___ [+nasal] nasalization 鼻音化
tenth [t?nθ] [n] ? [n] / ___ [+dental] dentalization 齿音化
sink [s??k ] [n] ?[?] / ___ [+velar]velarization 软腭化
(2) Across syllables 跨音节P43 ex.2-4
pan [?] cake
n→?[k] velar
sun [?] glasses
n→?[g] velar
(3) Across word boundaries 跨过词的界限P43 ex.2-5
You can [?] keep them He can [?] go now
n→?[k] velar n→?[g] velar
Morphology
Morphology 形态学:the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components：Morphemes
Morphemes(语素)：The smallest meaningful components of words.
【smallest unit that carries meaning】
Phoneme(词素): 【smallest unit that can distinguish meaning】
A、in terms of their capacity of occurring alone
Free morphemes自由语素
Bound morphemes黏着语素
B、Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.
?root the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根
?stem the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干
?affix the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀
C、Inflectional morphemes曲折词Derivational morphemes派生词
题目形式：考查词语的分析，如：
organizations 这个词语词干是？答：organization（词干，去掉具有语法意义的部分）
词根是？答：organize
High er education 分析词缀意义
句法学是研究句子内部组成/成分间的关系
(给出例子，写出反映的句法关系)
【Relation of Substitutability OR Vertical Relations】
Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.在相同结构的句子中，语法上可以互相替的词类或语词的集合
e.g. The ______ smiles.
man
boy
girl
B、横向关系【Associative Relations（联想关系）OR Paradigmatic Relations(纵聚合关系)】
Yesterday.
eg: He went there last week.
The day before.
C、同现关系【Relation of Co-occurrence】
Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
同现关系指小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。
eg:
(Preceded by) NP (followed by)
the strong man smiles
the pretty girl cries
the young boy sings
的缩写Immediate constituents
To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis.直接成分分析法
▲★(a) Tree diagram 树形图
S
NP VP
Det N V NP
Det N
ate the apple
Phrasal-level S= NP+VP VP=V+NP NP= Det+N
Word-level Det the, a , etc. N girl,apple, etc. V ate, took, etc.
(b) Bracketing 括号法
(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit.
Endocentric Constructions （向心结构）is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
?verb phrases 动词短语
?gerundial phrase 动名词短语Swimming in the lake is…..
?participial phrase 分词短语(bridge) damaged beyond repair.
?infinitive phrase 不定式(my purpose is) to cheer up everybody.
?complex verbal phrase 复合动词短语He will be living in Beijing.
Exocentric Constructions （离心结构）
A group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head”inside the group, usually including:
–the basic sentence (subject+predicate)
–the prepositional phrase
–the predicate (verb + object) construction
–the connective (be + complement) construction
★区别：向心结构至少有一个head;
Coordination 并列关系two or more heads Endocentric Constructions (所有的并列结构都属于向心结构，“and”、“or”、“but”)
Subordination 从属关系one head
离心结构则没有head
与predicator的区别
Predicate述谓成分: a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
谓语是指在句子结构二分法中除主语之外的其他所有成分。
Predicate includes constituents such as verb, object, complement,etc.
Predicator(谓语动词): verb or verbs included in a predicate.
与phrase 的区别
（1）Clause 有自己的逻辑主语、谓语；phrase则没有
（2）Clause 功能上与句子相似；phrase 只是在语法上不是完整的句子
Meaning（Sense Relations 涵义关系）
▲
Ⅰ、Synonymy 同义关系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
（Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.）
Ⅱ、Antonymy 反义关系
Antonymy means oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Ⅲ、Hyponymy 上下义关系（Meaning Inclusiveness 意义内包关系）
Hyponymy is a matter of class membership.（A is included in B.）
Superordinate 上义词: The upper term in this sense relation
Hyponym下义词: The lower terms
Co-hyponyms同下义词: members of the same class
?Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower
——上下义词都可缺失！
1. a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.一个上坐标词同时是它自己的上坐标词
?auto-hyponym自我下义词: animal is a hyponym of itself
2. a superordinate may be missing上坐标词会缺损(判断题)
–red, green, blue, black, white
3. hyponyms may be missing下义词也会缺损(判断题)
uncles: 叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，姑父
：Types of synonyms同义词类型
1. Dialectal synonyms:
----synonyms used in different regional dialects British English and American English Autumn = fall lift = elevator luggage = baggage lorry = truck petrol =gasoline flat =apartment 2. Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style
--- Some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
–daddy, dad, father, male parent
–start, begin, commence
–kid, child, offspring
–kick the bucket, die, pass away, decease 翘辫子，呜呼，仙逝，去世
3. Differing in emotive meaning (e.g. commendatory Vs. derogatory)
tough-minded ～ruthless resolute～obstinate shrewd ～sly, crafty
childlike～childish stout, plump～fleshy, tubby slender, slim ～lean, skinny 4. Collocation synonyms
----Differ in their collocation, i. e. , in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage.
–rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon
5.Semantically different synonyms
------Differ slightly in what they mean.
Surprise has two synonyms: amaze and astound, while “amaze” used in any occassion if you want to convey...surprised, disbelief..b oth negative and positive feelings , “astound” used sometimes but more on bigger occassions .
–I was _____ that the mayor had taken bribes.
A. amazed
B. astounded
–I was _____ at his conduct.
A. amazed
B. astounded
：Types of antonymy:
★
1. Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系hot Vs. cold
2. Complementary antonymy 互补反义关系male Vs. female
3. Converse antonymy 对比反义关系teacher Vs. pupil
(1) Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系
?good ----------- bad
?big ------------- small
→等级反义关系的特征
1.Gradable 等级的
The number of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. (good---bad)
每对反义词的成员表示的性质是程度上的差别。对一方的否定并不一定是对另一方的肯定。
?Can be modified by very.
?May have comparative and superlative forms.
?Can have intermediate ground like medium.
2.Different norms 不同的规范
There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad, big or small.
The criterion varies with the object described.
没有绝对的标准可用来判断某物good 还是bad, big还是small,标准随对象而改变。
? A big car----a small plane.
3.Having a cover term 有覆盖词
One member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.
一对反义词中，那个表示较高程度的单词通常可以用作整个性质的覆盖词。
?old & young
?How old are you? *How young are you?
(2) Complementary antonymy 互补反义关系
alive ---- dead male ---- female
互补反义关系特征
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/9716341505.html,plementary互补的
The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.
这种反义词中的成员彼此互补。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。（alive ---- dead）
–Can?t be modified by very.
–Haven’t comparative and superlative forms.
–Haven’t intermediate ground.
2.Absolute norms 绝对的规范
The norm in this type is absolute. It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to. 互补反义词依据的规范是绝对的,它不会随着词所指事物的不同而改变。
– The criterion for separating the male from the female is the same with human
beings and animals.
3.No cover term 无覆盖词
? There is no cover term for the two members of a pair. ? 一对互补反义词成员没有一个覆盖词。
– Is it a boy or a girl *How male is it?
★(3) Converse antonymy 反向反义关系 (Relational opposites 关系对立)
? buy : sell give : receive lend : borrow go :come ? parent : child husband : wife above: below
This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.其中的成员并不构成肯定否定的对立
? They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities 两实体间的一种反义关系
-- One presupposes the other.
– Comparative degrees, bigger : smaller better : worse
★★ → Eg:
（语义学）与Pragmatic
? Semantics:
定义：The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic , and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself . Therefore, meanings of words, sentences were all studied in isolation from language use.
? Pragmatics:
定义：It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use is left unconsidered.
Therefore, context is taken into consideration.
（Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in ）
Ⅰ：
? locutionary act （言内行为） ? illocutionary act (言外行为
) ? perlocutionary act （言后行为） Ⅱ、The definition of Grice’s theory logic and
Conversational Implicature 定义：Conversational Implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. Ⅲ、合作原则（分析题之一）
The Cooperative Principle (CP) 合作原则
Participants of a conversation observe willingly or unwillingly the principle: “Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs , by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”
人们在谈话中会有意无意地遵守这样的合作原则：“使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。” 四条原则
? Maxim of Quantity:数量准则
Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。 Do not make your contribution more informative than required. 不要使你的话语比所要求的信息更充分。
? Maxim of Quality: 质量准则 Try to make your contribution one that is true.
Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自知是虚假的话。
Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence; 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。
? Maxim of Relation: 关系准则
Be relevant
? Maxim of Manner: 方式准则
Be perspicuous
– Avoid obscurity of expression.避免含糊不清 – Avoid ambiguity.避免歧义 – Be brief.要简练 – Be orderly.要有序
考查形式：
给个句子用“合作原则”分析：
如：
?A: Can you answer the phone?
?B: I?m in the bath.回答方法：
①写出purpose（理论）：
Conversational Implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.
②具体内容+四条准则：
Participants of a conversation observe willingly or unwillingly the principle: “Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs , by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”
There are four categories of maxims: first, make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). Namely, Maxim of Quantity; second, Try to make your contribution one that is true. That is Maxim of Quality third is Maxim of Relation and the last is Maxim of Manner.
②点明违反那条原则以及分析对话中的隐含意义：
Based on the Grice;s principle, it has violated the Maxim of Relation. The second sp eaker B?s answer is not relevant to A?s answer. In the conversation, A asks B to answer the phone, but B?s answer suggest that it is not convenient for he is having bath. His meaning is “You should pick up the phone instead of me.”
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society
一个考点：
关于语言和文化的两种版本
Strong强势说
Weak弱势说