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英语文体学教案

1.1 Definition of Stylistics

Stylistics has long been considered as a highly significant but very discussible branch of learning. It is concerned with various disciplines such as linguistics, semantics, pragmatics and literature. The word stylistics( ?styl‘ component relates stylistic to literary criticism, and the ?istics‘ component to linguistics). So stylistics is the bridge of linguistics and literature. Stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation.‖ (文体学是从语言学的角度研究文学语篇)

Stylistics is an interdisciplined branch of learning which studies various differences between formal and informal, between deviant and normal, between magnificent and plain, between professional and popular, between foreign and domestic, between this and that individual.

1.2 The Development of Stylistics

The date when stylistics became a field of academic inquiry is difficult to determine. However stylistics is often considered as both an old and a young branch of learning. It is old, because it orig inated from the ancient ―rhetoric‖. The famous ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all contributed a lot to this branch of learning. It is young ,because the word ―stylistics‖ first appeared only in 1882, and the first book on stylistics was written by a French scholar Charles Bally in 1902 and was published in 1909: Traite de Stylistique Francaise. This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics. Consequently, a number of more coherent and systematic works of both a theoretical and a practical nature were published in the field.

The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse. Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker4, there was usually an “overtone” which indicated different “feelings”, and the task of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.

Later , the German scholar L.Spitzer(1887-1960), began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view, and therefore, Spitzer if often consider4ed as the “father of literary stylistics”.

From the beginning of the 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to the European continent. From the end of the 1950s to the present time, modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.

1.3 Definitions of Style

So style is an integral part of meaning. It gives us additional information about the speaker‘s/writer‘s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the his/her reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes. Without a sense of style we cannot arrive at a better understanding of an utterance

1）.Written---spoken in terms of channel

2）The Differences between Formal and Informal Language

3）modern----archaic in terms of time

4）normal----deviated in terms of degree of novelty

5）. common---professional in terms of technique（专业）

1.What‘s stylistics?

2.What does stylistics study?

3.Say something about the development of stylistics.

4.Give examples to explain ―Proper words in proper places makes the true definition of a style.‖

5.What does style study?

6.Give example to illustrate the differences between spoken-- written,

formal–informal, modern–archaic, norm—deviated, common---professional.

第二章

1. Definition of meanings of meaning

According to Leech (1974 English linguists), meanings of meaning can be broken into seven kinds:

1).Denotative meaning

It refers to literal meaning, refers to diction meaning.(super meaning) 词的概念意义。―概念意义‖是在语言交际中表达的基本意义.对概念意义的理解一般不会因人而异.概念意义可分解成若干‖语义成分‖,它是客观事物的反映或概括. 词义(denotation) 指词所表示的意义。简单地说，就是词典里所做的种种解释。若是给词义下个科学定义，就是―说话的人和听话的人所共同了解的词所反映的事物、现象或关系。‖

词的意义―是客观事物或现象在人们意识中的概括的反映，是由应用这种语言的集体在使用过程中约定俗成的。

2). Connotative meaning

Connotative meaning refers to the meaning implied.词的涵义(通过语言所指事物来传递的意义) It refers to the meaning implied. The meaning attached to the denotation. Connotative meaning refers to all kinds of associations words may evoke, particularly in certain referential meaning of words

3). Stylistic meaning：

Stylistic meaning refers to social circumstances.(social origin—where, social relation—how) We should be able to tell what his education, background, likes, dislikes. Stylistic meaning refers to social circumstances, refers to the time , place, where an article is written, where the speech is spoken, refers to environment, social origin of the speaker, social relationship between speaker and listener. When we hear a comment or a speech, we can predict a speaker‘s education background, hobbies, like and di slike and so on.

4). Affective meaning

Affective meaning refers to emotion or the feeling expressed by the speaker or writer. 5). Reflected meaning

―反映意义‖的特点如下:有一些多义词,其中某一个含义会引起不好的联想或反映.因而成为禁忌词,有些词的反映意义是在语言运用中附加上去的.The reflected meaning refers to the meaning undetected in communication. (misled meaning)

6). Collocation meaning

―搭配‖指一个词与某个或某些词一起使用(即共现)的倾向性.它实质上是句法上研究的‖横组合关系‖. 利奇在<语义学>(1981)中介绍了词或言语的搭配意义(collocative meaning)例如,fresh 的反义词有foul, withered, faded等,foul一般与water和air搭配.withered 与flower等搭配,faded与color搭配.搭配也是一种‖互相预见性‖现象,即听到几个词后可以预见下一个词是什么词.不过互相预见性还指听到几个词后可以预见下文的主要用词特征或全篇的语域特征即‖语义场‖. 搭配意义是指适合在某一个上下文中的意义.

7).Thematic meaning

―主题意义‖是说话者或写文章的人借助组织信息的方式(语序,强调手段,信息焦点的安排)来传递的一种意义.由于句子的‖新意义‖主要由句末表达,

Homework:

1. According to Leech, how many kinds of meaning can be divided into ?

2. What‘s the difference between ―Denotative meaning‖ and― Connotative meaning‖ ?

3. Give examples to illustrate ―collocation meaning‖.

第三章

1. Concept of Text

Etymologically, the word ―text‖ comes from a metaphorical use of the Latin verb ―textere (weave), suggesting a sequence of sentences or utterances : ―interwoven‖ structurally and semantically. As a countable noun it is commonly used in linguistics and stylistics to refer to sequential collection of sentences or utterances which form a unit by reason of their linguistic cohesion and semantic coherence. Thus we concluded that a text is any passage, origin, long or short, simple or complex, written or spoken, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole.

1）.Cohesive device:照应手段

There are two kinds of devices. Sometimes the connection is obvious. That is explicit. Sometimes it is implicit. They are covered connection between different paragraphs and different sentences.

(1). Explicit (because, therefore, besides, addition, to conclude in a word)

语法手段粘合

所谓语法手段是把一部分意义上的连贯性，通过语法形式加以表现何固定下来。英语中照应手段是很多的，主要有参照关系(reference)，替换关系(substitution)，省略关系(ellipsis)，连接关系(conjunction)，词汇照应(lexical cohesion)。主要涉及的有（1）代词和指点词的应用；（2）替代；（3）省略。

（1）代词和指点词的应用

（2）“替代”所涉及的是以下一些“替代词”的应用：

（3）省略在这里就是指省去一些“替代词”，省略也能起有效的粘合作用。

在句与句之间起粘合作用的词汇手段常用的有：

表示添加关系的，如：and, besides, furthermore, in addition to

表示时间或顺序关系的，如：then, next, subsequently, first , second, third

表示因果关系的，如：so, therefore, accordingly, as a result of that

表示对立关系的，如：but, nevertheless, instead, in spite of that

2）Implicit Cohesion

(1) 靠意义联系

(2) 靠联想粘合

2. The Concept of Context

―Context‖ has been understood in various ways. Context may refer to all the elements of a communicative situation: the verbal and nonverbal context, the context of given speech situation and the social context of the relationship between the speaker and hear, their knowledge and their attitude.

Generally speaking, we consider ― context‖ to consist of two aspects: One is ―linguistic context‖, the other is ― ex tra-linguistic context‖. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as co-text, which refers to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context( interchangeable with Context Of Situation) refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. Taking on a broader sense, the term ―context‖ may include not only the co-text, but also the extra-linguistic context.

所用语言的知识

语言知识

对语言上下文的了解

交际活动的时间、地点

语境交际的话题

情景知识交际的正式程度

参与者的相互关系

语言外知识

特定文化的社会规范等

会话规则

背景知识关于客观世界的一般知识

参与者的相互了解

Contextual factors including the following aspects:

1). user of language言者

2). Characteristics of the use of language in situation.

3.The function of the language:

Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative, and performative.

(1). What is the phatic function?

The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.

(2)What is the directive function?

The ― directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function,

(3)What is the informative function?

“信息功能”指语言用来传达信息，即告诉他人一些事情、情况、信息等的功能。典型的实现该功能的句子是陈述句。

(4)What is the interrogative function?

―疑问功能―是指人们运用语言进行沟通以便得到信息。所有的要求给予回答的一般和特殊问句都有这一功能。但是，根据‖间接语言行为理论―，陈述句、祈使句等在一定语境中也可以兼有这一疑问功能。如，―我叫小明。‖如果对方可能早已知道―我‖的姓名，那么―我‖说这句话的言外之意是―疑问‖对方的―芳名‖。要注意这一点，修辞问句，即设问句，不一定实现疑问功能，因为它们不要求做答。

(5)What is the expressive function?

The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal somethin g about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.

(6)What is the evocative function?

The “ evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.Its aim is, for example , to amuse , startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes( not practical jokes, though) are not supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express , for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feelings in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s also the case with the other way around.

(7)What is the performative function?

This means people speak to ―do things‖ or to perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‘s imprisonment sentence, the president‘s war or independence declaration, ect. , are performatives as well.

3. The Cooperative Principle

H.P.Grice（英国哲学家）认为，会话双方的―合作‖是建立在应当共同遵守的原则上的。他提出四条交际原则：（合作原则的具体内容：划分―量‖、―质‖、―关系‖和―方式‖这样四个范畴，每个范畴内又包括若干个―准则‖和―次准则‖。遵守这些准则和次准则也就是遵守―合作原则‖的体现。）

Grice(1975) suggested that when people converse with one another, they acknowledge a kind of tacit agreement he calls the cooperative conversationally towards mutual ends. This agreement he calls the cooperative principle. When one follows this principle, one communicates according to various rules which Grice calls ― Maxims‖. For example, one must tell the truth and one must ta ke one‘s point clearly. Grice has put forward four conversational maxims:

1).The maxim of quantity

数量准则(maxim of quantity), 意思是说：当说者能够提供听这所需要的―信息‖时，它应提供足够的―信息‖，但不该―过量‖。（1）你说的话应包含（当前交谈目的）所需要的信息内容。（2）你说的话不应包含超出需要的信息内容。

2).The maxim of quality

质量准则(maxim of quality)，意思是说：交谈的双方都遵守一个前提，即对方说的是真实的，可信的，不是有意欺骗自己的。如果双方都对此次讲的话抱怀疑或半信半疑的态度，那么人们就无法在社会上实现言语交际了。（1）不要说你认为是虚假的话。（2）不要说你缺乏足够证据的话。

3).The maxim of relation

关联准则（maxim of relevance）。双方都应说与话题有关的话，也都认为对方说的话语话题有关。如果A说:‖I‘m running out of writing paper.‖ B答道: ―There‘s a shop round the corner.‖,那么A应把B说的看作是与话题有关的话语，而不会把的话看作是孤立的一个陈述句。同样的，B也是出于关联准则才这样回答的，意思是叫去买些纸来。双方都遵守这一原则，才能在交谈中息息相通，不至于造成误解。有些对话在字面上似乎没有关联，但由于听者和说者都能在特定的背景下遵守了这一原则，所以同样可以达到交际目的。

4).The maxim of manner

风格准则，交谈的双方应言简意明，不该有意含糊其辞。（方式：方式范畴则与―如何说‖相关，总的准则是―要清楚明白‖，具体准则包括：（1）避免晦涩的表达。（2）避免歧义。（3）要简练（避免不必要的罗嗦）。（4）要有条理。

对于以英语为本族语的人来说，遵守上述准则可以是一种下意识的行为；但对我们来说，这是一个反复实践的习得过程。

5. Information structure

信息结构也是一种语用结构，它指在构成一个话语时，话语各成分之间表现出来的不同交际价值。言语行为，从―以言指事‖，到―以言行事‖，以至―以言成事‖，实际上都是在传递信息。每一个话题都是一个信息片断，每一个信息片断的内部或在多个信息片断之间，都可分出已知信息(known information) 或称旧信息(old information)和未知信息(unknown information)或称新信息(new information)。

语言学上的信息结构最早是布拉格学派提出的，此后，许多学者在语言的语调、语序方面对话语信息做了大量的研究：也有些学者从句法结构、语言心理、言语交际等方面揭示信息结构的规律。

已知信息和未知信息

已知信息或旧信息指说话人相信它所传递的信息是听话人已经知道的（可能在交际语境中提供的，也可能在前述话语中已有所提及）；而未知信息，或新信息指说话人认定他所传递的信息是听话人所未知的。话语结构的每一个片断，即反映在句法上的各个成分，其交际价值是不同的。如果这个片断只传递一个已知信息，交际价值就小；如果它传递一个新信息，交际价值就比较大。话语结构的信息一般都按交际价值大小作线性排列。作为新信息，其交际价值较大，往往放在话语的后部，即所谓述位（rhyme）部分；作为已知信息，其交际价值较小，放在话语的前部，即所谓主位(theme)部分。一般说来这样的信息表现规律同话语的语音表现是相应的：新信息位于语调群(tone group) 最后的一个词项上，这个新信息的信息焦点(focus) 称为末尾焦点(end-focus)，调核(nucleus) 就落在这个词项的重读音节上：

Homework:

1.What‘s a text?

2.How many cohesive devices are there in a text? What are they?

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bb9077813.html,e examples to illustrate explicit cohesive device and implicit cohesive device.

4.What‘s context?

5.Say something about contextual factors.

6. How many functions does a language have? What are they?

7.Explain H.P Grice‘s cooperative principle.

第四章

People may vary their sounds , diction and syntax in spoken and written language in communication for a certain purpose. Varieties of a language refer to versions of a language associated with a specific region, social relation, ethnic, sex, or a group. It is usually identifiable at all levels of grammar, from sounds to words, sentence structures, ect. ( We should have three main varieties, and three chief characteristics, of style, the style of the intellectual, whose characteristic is clearness; the style of the imagination, whose characteristic is vividness; the sty le of the emotions, whose characteristic is passion.)

1.Variety at the level of phonology

1). 语音的文体功能

语音的文体功能就在于它能帮助我们合理地调配和运用各种语音表现手段，挖掘语言的音乐美，增强语言的艺术魅力。某些语音特征能区别说话人在地理区域、社会阶层、文化程度乃至职业、年龄和性别上的差异。有时，不见其人，只听其声，也大致可以分辨出说话人是美国人还是英国人，是南方人还是北方人，是城里人还是乡下人。这是因为每个音位都有许多自由变体。这些变体（即音素）并不影响意思的表达，但却有文体特征。它们与语调、重音、音域、语速等要素合在一起，能提供语言之外的许多情况。英语中曾流行这样一句话：―The mome nt you speak, you are placed!‖大意是说：你一开口，一发音，你的社会地位及文化程度等就一清二楚了。

(1)重读

在运用口头方式进行言语交际时，人们往往通过重读表达特殊的含义。

例如：

John bought that new car yesterday.

读此句时，如果重读了John, 则暗示It was John (not anybody else) who bought that new car yesterday. 如果重读Bought，那么就会因不同的语境产生不同的含义.

(2)音长

音的长度虽然会受到邻音的影响而变化不一，但在连续的话语(connected speech)中，相对的音长是可以判断的。如果延长音的长度，往往可以产生一定的修辞效果。比如，如果把Get out 说得既响亮又短促，那就表明说话人在生气；如果说得地、慢，那就表示说话人的威胁性的口吻。在实际交谈中，有时故意拖长音素，使得词义走向反面，产生赞许、挖苦、责备、戏谑等感情色彩。

(3)停顿

停顿可以分为两类：结构性停顿(structural pauses) 和感情性停顿(emotive pauses)。结构性停顿依赖于句子结构，故较有规律，停顿的时间不会太长。情感性停顿不受句子结构的约束，停顿的时间也不一致。讲话时若表示犹豫或制造某种悬念，可借助情感性停顿；有时则因情绪激动，不由自主地会用情感性停顿。

停顿直接影响语速和文体风格。当众演说、戏剧道白、电影中的对话都十分讲究停顿。比方说，Helen Smith 在第一次演唱比赛中获得头奖。在向公众宣布The first Prize has been won by Helen Smith 时，我们自然会在by 的后面略作停顿，以便吸引听众的注意力，突出得奖人的姓名。忽视这点就会使表达效果大为减色。(4)语调

英语的语调包含三个要素：音高(pitch height)、音变(pitch movement)和音幅(pitch range)。根据语调的构成及其内部运动的情况，英语语调可分为降、升调和降升调三种。人们的复杂感情----喜、怒、-哀、乐、肯定、犹豫、沮丧、轻松等等，均可以通过不同的语调反映出来。从交际功能上看，语调比语音更为重要。因此，英国语音学家R.Kingdom 把语调看作是―语言的灵魂―

一般说来，降调含有―肯定‖ (definiteness)―明确‖(certainty)和―完整‖(completeness)的意味；升调的基本含义是―缺乏肯定性‖(lack of definiteness)―缺乏明确性‖(lack of certainty) ―从属‖(subordination) 及―不完整‖(incompleteness);

(5)表达的速度

讲话速度的快慢也可以影响表达效果。事情紧迫、心情激动或烦躁时，讲话的速度则快，节奏也紧凑些；犹豫、疑虑或心情忧郁时，语速自然缓慢。把握住语速能恰当地表达思想感情。

(6)音色

音色虽然属生理特征，但在言语交际中我们可以使用多方法改变音色，以实现某种表达效果。讲话时可以是低声细语，也可以伴有笑声、哭泣声、叹息声，有时又故意使用假声(falsetto)。类似的音色变化都影响交际。例如―Would you please open the window?‖

这句话，本意是十分客气的，但若用严峻的口气吼叫出来，就显得极其粗暴无礼；听者不仅不会开窗户，反会被吓跑的！

2).Sound and Meaning

(1)拟声

拟声词的文体功能在于加强语言的直观性、形象性和生动性，给人一种身临其境的感觉；它能刺激人的听觉，从而对语义产生象征性的联想。

拟声(onomatopoeia or sound imitation) 可分为两类：基本拟声(primary onomatopoeia) 和次要拟声(secondary onomatopoeia).

a. 基本拟声(primary onomatopoeia)

基本拟声指的是音与义基本吻和,故能直接产生音、义之间的互相联想: meow 使人想到猫的―瞄瞄‖声; cackle 使人联想到母鸡生蛋后的‖咯咯叫声;看见蛇从草地爬过时,我们会自然联想到hiss 这个词.英语中许多表示动物鸣叫的词时按照基本拟声构成的。

b.次要拟声(secondary onomatopoeia).

所为次要拟声，指的是音与某种象征性意义发生联想。例如sniff, snuff, snort, snare 等词都象征性地表示呼吸时发出的声响；snip; snatch, snap 等词常用来象征性地表示迅速地动作。居于词首地辅音连缀sl 常象征着―滑‖地意义（如slide, slip, slither, slush, sluice, sludge, sleek 等），sk 则常象征着―与表面接触‖的意义（如skate, skim, skin, skid, skimp等）。居于词尾的辅音连缀sl or fl 常暗示―沙沙的声响（如whistle, ruffle, shuffle 等）。双元音常出现在某些表示光线或声音的单词中（如flare, glare, stare, blare）。

2.Variety at the level of lexicon

1）Words of different origins ( Anglo- Saxion, French, Latin).

2)Words used by different people with different education.

3)Archaic words or modern words.

4)Technical English ( professional English) or literary English:

5)One-item words or phrasal words.

3.Variety at the level of syntax

Varieties of formal English have their own unique uses of syntax, such as longer sentences, complex sentence structure ( with subordination—as subordinate clauses and participial or absolute structures); impersonal constructions ( predicator in passive voice ; use of formal it as subject).

In contrast, informal varieties are marked by shorter sentences, simple sentence structure ( without much subordination), use of sentence relatives( as in, ― He lied, which bothered her a lot‖), participial and absolute structures replaced by clauses, e lliptical sentences( as You Ok?), tag questions, involved construction ( use of first and second person pronoun as subject), etc.

4.Kinds of varieties

1)Individual Dialect---Idiolect

2)Temporal Dialect

3)Regional Dialect

4)Gender varieties

Homework:

1.How many kinds of varieties do we often use in communication?

2.Give some examples to show different varieties.

第五章

1. Martin Joos’ Classification

The famous American stylistician wrote a book named ―Five Clocks‖. In his book he compared styles to five clocks. Martin Joos 写的一本名叫The Five Clocks 的专著。这本书于1962年出版，至今仍被认为是研究英语文体的必读书。其原因是作者在这本书中提出了英语的五种―使用变体‖，并形象地把它们喻为―五只钟‖。这五种“使用变体”，并形象地把它们喻为“五只钟”。这五种“使用变体”是：冷冻体、正式体、商洽体、随意体和亲切体。（亲切体中为私人意义，随意体中为俚语意义，正式体中为专业意义，冷冻体中为暗指意义。）

1). Frozen Style (冷冻体)

The occasions for using Frozen Style are often the most highly significant and symbolic in the culture. The people involved maybe persons of distinction who deserve special respect and treatment. 庄严的文体（the Frozen Style;也有人译作―冷冻体‖）。这是一种非常雅致、庄重的文体，是经过反复推敲的力作，读者必须经过反复琢磨方能领悟蕴藏在词句之中的层层含义。领悟的过程是个―解冻‖的过程，所以Martin Joos使用

了frozen这个词来概括这种文体。一般认为，Martin Joos说的the Frozen Style是指的是正式、优雅的文学文体。如果予以引申，这种文体主要用于具有象征性和历史意义的场合，如法律条款、历史文献、议会及重大的国际会议文件等。它是适应于更庄重、严肃场合的一种语体。Martin Joos 所说的―冷冻体‖是指―好的写作‖，特别文学作品的语言。定义：好的冷冻体要能诱使读者不断作出创造性的发现―。如此，首先要耐读，每读一遍都有所发现。而要耐读，写的时候就必须经过反复推敲，使一层层的含义蕴藏在词句之中，以待读者反复诵读把它体味出来。因为领会时要有这样一个解冻的过程，故称冷冻体。其次还要耐感受，每读一遍都唤起新的感情。有的作品能唤起强烈的感情。

2).Formal style:( 正式的文体)

这种文体一般用于较重要的场合和较严肃的主题。它是专门用来提供信息的，其代码标志是“may” 这个词。Martin Joos 认为，凡用了“may”就是正式体，如May I help you? 而在非正式场合下可能会用―might‖ 或―can‖等同义词。正式体则用于听众较多（六人以上），因此无法对说话人作出反应，说话人处在独白的场合，独白必须把内容按逻辑环节加以组织，把背景知识编入复杂的句子，把音发的尽量清晰，把语法关系理的很严谨，避免省略，把语义弄明确，避免模糊。这些就是正式体的语言特点。―May I help you?‖

3).The consultative Style

这是一种―日常办事语言‖(everyday getting-things-done language)。日常工作交往、在商店购物、旅游等场合均使用这种文体。Martin Joos 把同陌生人攀谈所使用的英语看作是这种文体的典型表现形式。商洽体是典型地用于同生人攀谈的语体，它的基本特征为：1. 说话人提供背景知识---他认为不提供这些情况对方就不能听懂他的话；2. 对方不断地参加谈话，说一些―噢‖、―对‖、―不错‖这样的话，或在面对面的谈话中不出声地点头。

4.The Casual Style

这种文体多用于朋友之间的闲谈(relaxed conversation)及书往来。它典型地用于朋友和熟人之间的语体。不拘礼节的一般性互访或朋友偶遇街头时，均可使用这种文体。它的―系统特征‖是：1，省略，2 使用俚语。

5.The Intimate Style

这种文体只用来表露内心的感情，不传递公共信息。家庭成员或亲爱者之间常用这种文体。亲切体的典型用途是在夫妻之间。Ready?

Homework:

1.How many styles are there? What are they?

2.Explain the features for each style.

3 Give example to illustrate them.

第六章

1.What is deviation?

Deviation is departure from the norm, which is itself relative and hard to define. We can talk about the norm of a historical period, the norm of a writer, or even the norm manifested in a text. But a creative writer can sometimes go outside the conventions of a

language for special effects. Such deviations are called ― external deviations‖ because the norm is determined outside the text. Other deviations are ― internal deviations:‖, Deviations are found at the phonological, graphological, syntactic, and semantic levels, and in the use of dialects, registers and historical variations.

2.Forms of deviation

变异既然存在于语言的使用之中，那么就有其表现形式。在讨论语言成分的排列时，我们曾提及变异。词语搭配上的变异只是一个方面，语言诸要素均能在使用中出现变异。这在诗歌语言中表现更为明显。偏离表现于各个方面：语音、句法、词法、语义等。还有方言、语域、历史变异等方面的偏离。这里着重介绍在中提出的八种变异形式。

1).语音变异（Phonological Deviation ）

Features at the phonological level function more by being overregular rather than being deviant, since they belong to the surface structure of the English language. However, the following phonological irregularities still need to be noted.

为了保持诗行的韵律，非重音的音节可以省略。这在诗歌中表现比较明显。出于节奏或韵律的需要，单词的音节可以省去，重音可以改变，整个词的发音也可以违背常规。比如，在o‘er（=over ），‘its（=it is ），‘gainst（=against ）

2).词汇变异（Lexical Deviation ）

利奇确认了两种词汇偏离：新造词（neologism）和临时造词(nonce-formation)。词汇变异首先表现在创造新词上，两者的目的和手法是相同的，都超越了正常语言的词汇。这些词汇使诗人的想象得以自由发挥，纵横自如，不受现有词汇的束缚和限制。新词日后被接收为标准语言，临时造词则昙花一现。作家，特别是诗人，常使用―临时造词‖(nonce-formation)方式，为某一特定的目的而创造新词。创造新词并不等于―胡编滥造‖，而是在，某些构词法则基础上予以创新。比如，英国诗人Gerald Manley Hopkings 在他的诗中就使用了词类转换的原则实现了词语的变异用法：3).语法变异（Grammatical Deviation）

语法变异，是诗人对一种常规语法形式的反复使用达到非常规的程度，语法变异在小说和诗歌中都很常见。E.ECummings的诗句you pays your money and you doesn‘t take your choice.则是对语法规则的大胆违背，借此暗示：―花了钱而得不到中意得东西‖，真是是非颠倒，违背常规！

4).句法的变异：

英语中句子的变异现象，可以归纳为两大类，一类是指文体风格方面的变化，另一类是指语言本身的不规范现象。

变异的句法特征：人们社会交际活动所涉及的无数不同的场合、目的、对象、主题、途径等等，都不同程度地影响或制约着语言的表达形式；人们的社会地位、地理区域、所受教育、乃至种族差别等，对语言产生的影响更为明显。比如，受过一定文化教育的人，总是用比较规范的语言进行交流，而远离都市、没有受过文化教、处于社会下层的普通人，常用一些不同于规范语或次规范语，也称为对规范语的变异。

5).书写或字音变异（Graphological Deviation ）

书写与语音之间有一定联系，语音上的变异也往往反映在书写上。George Bernard Shaw在Pygmalion一剧中，为了体现人物的方言特点，使用了不少变异的书写形式，如: aw rawt(=all right), e‘s(=he is).bo-oots (=boots)等。拼写是语音在字面层的体现。方

言写成文字，其拼写必然不合标准语言。艾米莉。勃朗特(Emily Bronte)在小说《呼啸山庄》中描写雇工乔（Joe）的方言，甚至希思克利夫（Heathcliff）的语言，都在拼写的偏离上做文章，以刻划人物未受到良好教育因而吐字不清的特点。

6)．语义变异(Semantic Deviation)

语义变异指的是语义在逻辑上的不合理。在作品中有时会看到一些词没有意义或语

义荒谬，但

在一定的语境下这个无意义的或荒谬的词却有其特殊意义。语义上的变异多见于形

象性的语

言，而形象性语言的核心是比喻。

7) .Structural deviation

8).方言变异（Dialect Deviation ）

在小说、诗歌戏剧中使用方言词语或方言的句法结构，借以体现人物的身份和背景，增添乡土气息，这种变异便是方言变异。在英国文艺作品中，常出现，伦敦社会底层的人说的―土话‖（即―伦敦方言‖），当属方言变异的典型例证。在美国文艺作品中，黑人的英语也属典型的方言变异。小说、戏剧中的方言变异已是司空见惯。诗歌中的方言变异也不凡其例。在Edmund Spencer 的The Shepherd‘s Calender 中，我们可以看到诗人使用了一些朴实的方言词语，如rontes (=young bullocks), weanell(=newly weaned kid or lamb), heydeguyes(= a type of dance), 给诗歌增添了浓厚的乡村牧歌色彩。

9).语域的变异（Deviation of Register ）。

这里，首先要弄清楚语域的概念。方言是根据语言使用者在运用语言时的特征区分的，而语域则根据语言使用者在运用语言时所要求完成的功能来定义的。例如，两人初次见面的客套话，每天公布的天气预报，如天气预报中经常出现的是―晴‖、―雪‖、―阴‖、―气温‖、―八级地震‖。宋世雄对体育比赛的实况转播中有时很少有停顿，有时则边想边说，待中国队一得分嗓门顿时提高，兴奋无比，这些都受语域的制约。一般人是不这么说话的。都是语域。在一种文体中借用其他文体或语域的表达方式就构成了语域的变异。

10).历史时代的变异（Deviation of Historical Period ）。

不同时代的作品在语言使用上不同于当代语言。莎士比亚的剧本反映了他所处时代的语言。

就当代的作家来说，他也不一定受制于当代的标准语言。作家可以超越语言的历史时代，运用古词语或废语，以取的某种表达效果，其效果是把读者引向一个遥远的年代。这就使语言在使用中出现历史的时代的变异。在诗歌、小说、宗教文件、法律文体以及报刊文体中都能看到这重变异。

11).英语的区域性变体

Language varieties from region to region. Owing to the physical boundaries of oceans and mountains, people who live in different speech patterns. So far as the English speaking world is concerned, there are British , American English , Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English, Canadian English, and other international varieties. There are also regional varieties within Great Britain and the United States, such as cockney in Britain, North Midland dialect in USA, ect. A variety like this we call Regional Dialect. The lay term for it is Accent, as a dialect is often associated with a particular accent.

12). 词语搭配的变异形式

如前所述，变异是对常规而言的。在词语的搭配方面也有常规。比如，我们可以说 a kind-hearted person，却不说；a kind-hearted table 可以说 a lazy boy，却不说a lazy house; 可以说to close the door, 却不能说to close the light可见，词语在句在句中的搭配是建立在某种意义上的联系和使用常规上的。

然而，在文学文体中，特别是在诗歌与小说中，为了创造某种形象，达到―突出‖的目的，作家可以在词语搭配方面违背常规，使词语搭配产生变异形式。

在这里我们着重介绍四种变异形式：矛盾修饰(oxymoron)、转移修饰(transferred epithet)、一语双斜(syllepsis)和轭式搭配(zeugma)。

(1)矛盾修饰(oxymoron)

矛盾修辞法是英语中一种特殊的修辞手法。这种修辞法把词汇意义相对立、互相矛盾的反义词搭配在一起。也就是说把意义上互相矛盾或不协调的两个词放在一起使用，表面上似乎自相矛盾，但仔细回味便感到意味深长，妙趣横生。从而深刻揭示事物之间即矛盾对立又协调统一的关系。用它来描写人物，能使其更加鲜明；用它来表达复杂的思想感情或意味深长的哲理，能使其更强烈、更深刻。用它来状物写景，能突出事物的实质。矛盾修辞法大多用在文学作品中，是依靠词汇搭配来传递感情色彩的修辞手段。名词与名词、名词与形容词副词与形容词、词与动词以及形容词与形容词之间均可构成矛盾修饰。

(2)转移修饰(transferred epithet)

转移修饰就是用表示性质或特征的形容词，过去分词或现在分词来修饰不同属性的名词，使词语搭配产生变异，造成突出。例如，在Helen spoke with lazy calmness. 一句中，lazy在结构上修饰calmness；但从语义上看，它实际上是修饰Helen 这个人的。这就构成了转移修饰。转移修饰能使人产生形象联想，收到情景交融，耐人寻味的表达效果。因此在诗歌和小说中常被采用。

It is a figure of speech where an epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase) is transferred from the noun it should rightly modify to another to which it does not really apply or belong.

(3)一语双斜(syllepsis)

词语搭配的另一种变异形式是一语双叙，既用一个词同时与两个词搭配，由此产生两种语义：比喻义和字面义。一语双叙是建立在一词多义基础上的。

(4)轭式搭配(zeugma)。

与一语双叙相似的另一种变异搭配是轭式搭配，即用一个形容词或动词去修饰或支配两个或更多的名词，或用一个介词支配两个或多个并不发生联系的名词，甚至可以让两个意义上毫无联系的名词与同一个动词搭配：

Homework;

1.What‘s deviation?

2.How many kinds of deviation are there? What are they?

3.Give some examples to illustrate ―Lexical Deviation, Ph onological Deviation,

Grammatical Deviation‖ respectively.

第七章

1. Literal description:

--- direct, factural, precise,

emotionless, unambiguous

2. Rhetorical description:

--- indirect, colorful, imaginery,

emotional, vivid, ambiguous

(1) oxymoron

矛盾修饰指的把意义上互相矛盾或不协调的两个词放在一起使用，也就是把两个意思截然相反的词放在一起，表面上似乎自相矛盾，但仔细回味便感到意味深长，妙趣横生。名词与名词、名词与形容词副词与形容词、词与动词以及形容词与形容词之间均可构成矛盾修饰。如：a love-hate relationship, orderly chaos, mercifully fatal, strenuous idleness, wisely stupid, poor rich guys等。矛盾修饰可以揭示人和事物等对立统一的辨证关系，常用来表现人的复杂心里：

(2) simile

A simile is a comparison introduced by the words like, as, as…as, as if(though) or other words. It compares two things that differ in most ways, but are strikingly alike in some way.

(3) metaphor

Metaphor: The substitution of one thing for another, or the identification of two things from different ranges of thought. It is often loosely defined as ― an implied comparison‖ ―a simile without ?like‘ or ?as‘‖. Metaphor is considered by many the most and the most important and basic poetic figure and also the commonest and the most beautiful.

暗喻的结构不同于明喻，它是隐藏的比较，不用like 或as 表示出来。暗喻是英语中最普通、最基本，也是最重要的修辞格。英语词义常可从中心意义通过暗喻方式产生出新的意义来。

4) personification

Personification: a figure that endows objects, animals, ideas, or abstraction with human form, character, or sensibility. There are three chief kinds of personifications: Such u se often gives life to an inanimate , non-human thing; it is called personification:

5) metonymy

换喻反映两个密切相关的事物的现时关系，换喻与比喻（明喻和暗喻）不同，不需要两个事物相比，而是借用伴随或附属于某一事物的另一事物的名称来代替某事物的名称。所谓换喻，说的是一个事物，不过是换一种说法来表现而已。英语词义的扩大除通过暗喻外，还通过换喻方式实现，如board不只是桌子，后来也指坐在会议桌边的人。

换喻可使表达多样化、简洁、动人。英诗中常用换喻来避免一般化，使形象具体、生动，如用grave 表达“死亡”。

6) synecdoche

提喻也是不直说某一事物的名称，而是借事物本身所呈现的各种对应的现象来表现。提喻与换喻不同，换喻主要借助于密切的关系与联想，而提喻则是借助于部分相似。提喻通常是用局部来代替整体，间或也用整体来代替局部，局部与整体之间总有相似之处。英语的词义的扩大也有通过提喻这一演变方式的，如有些词义从特指扩大

到一般：journal 从“日报”发展到指一切“期刊”；有些词义从抽象扩大到具体：grasp 从具体的“用手抓住”发展扩大为抽象的―用头脑去掌握、领会‖；

7) Hyperbole

夸张是为了达到强调或滑稽效果有意言过其实，人们不能按字面去理解所夸大的事物，但是这并不等于有失真实，而是通过夸张把事物的本质更好地体现出来。

8）Repetition

反复就是反复使用同一个词、句或段落，借以加强语气和感情，产生突出的效果。反复不同于表达中的罗嗦、重复。罗嗦、重复，指的是一再使用无助于提高表达效果的词语或句子，当属一种―语病‖；而反复则是有意识地重复使用关键的词、句，使其产生感染力。反复常见于演说、诗歌、小说及论说文体。

9）Parallelism

排比，就是把结构相同、意义并重、语气一致的词组或句子排列成串，形成一个整体。排比句便于表达强烈的感情，突出所强调的内容，增强语言的气势。同时，由于句式整齐，节奏分明，也可以增强语言的韵律美。排比一般由三项或三项以上语句构成，排比次序一般由轻到重，由低潮到高潮。

10）Irony

反语就是说反话，用与本意相反的话语来表达本意。反语常常勇于嘲弄，讽刺，在表扬或持中立态度的掩饰下提出批评或表示贬责，是反话正说。在词的涵义中我们举了Swift 的A Modest Proposal中的例子，都属于反语。

11）Pun

It is a play on words, or rather a play on the form and meaning of words. 双关（pun; paronomasia ）就是有意识地利用语言中的同音异义或一词多义现象使一句话产生两层不同的意思，导致“一语双关”。

12 Antithesis

It is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve emphasis. 有意识地把意义相对的词语放在对称的结构中形成对照，便构成对偶。对偶既要求结构匀称整齐，又要求有意义相反的词语互相衬托，二者不可缺一。运用对偶，可以增添语言的鲜明性，起到加强语义的作用。排比和对偶两者的区别在于:对偶只限于两项,排比则至少三项;前者结构相同,后者较为灵活;前者强调对比,后者强调递进;前者不重复重点词,后者却往往借助重点词的重复以加强语势;前者一般以短句形式出现,而后者则多以长句形式出现.

13）Climax

It is derived from the Greek word for "ladder" and implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or intensity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly.

14）Anti-climax or bathos

Anticlimax, contrary to climax, involves a sudden change from something noble, serious,

exciting, etc., to something foolish, unimportant or uninteresting. Anticlimax may be done intentionally for the sake of humor or ridicule.

Exercises:

1. Childhood is like a swiftly passing dream. (simile)

2. It has long leaves that sway in the wind like slim fingers reaching to touch something.(simile)

3. Long and loudly little Lily laughed.( Transferred Epithet)

4. The old man put a reassuring hand on my shoulder. ( Transferred Epithet)

5. The elephant is a fairly sizable animal.(Understatement)

6. The fog comes in on little cat feet.(metaphor)

7. Little ghosts of wind whispered secrets in the tree tops.(personification)

8. His amusing performance brought the house down.

9. The more things a man is ashamed of, the more respectable he is.(paradox)

10. Mr. Grabby does not let generosity get the better of him.（Euphemism）

11. He says he used to read Luxun a lot.( metonymy)

12. She read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smile. (oxymoron)

Homework:

1.What‘s oxymoron? Give examples to illustrate it.

2.What‘s the difference between simile and metaphor? Give examples to illustrate it.

3.What‘s personification? Give examples to il lustrate it.

4. Analyze the following paragraph. What kind of rhetoric did Samuel Johnson use here?

If the flights of Dryden therefore are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. If of Dryden‘s fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope‘s the heat is more regular and constant.

Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment and Pope with perpetual delight.

第八章

1.简单句与省略句

简单句短小精悍，结构简单，表意明确，具有明显的强调功能。有些简单句不带有任何修饰语，常用来描述某种动作，产生直达明快、加快节奏的修饰效果。

简单句的局限性是：它的容量小，不宜表达复杂、细腻的思想或说理过程；过多是用简单句还会使文章的节奏显得单调、刺耳。

省略句(the elliptical sentence)也是一种具有明显文体功能的句子结构。由于略去了交际双方已知的概念，而只保留了对方希望得到的新信息，因此，省略句能够突出

信息重点、缩小信息间隔、简化表达程序、增加语言效果。它以较少的词来表达一个完整的概念，可以说是语言交流的捷径。省略句结构紧凑，表意突出，能收到言简意赅(gai)的强烈效果。在日常口语中，省略句的使用频率极高，是人们进行言语交际的主要句法手段。

2.并列句与复合句

用连接词或标点符号把意义相关、结构完整的两个或两个以上的简单句连接起来便组成并列句。并列句结构均衡，能体现语言的均衡美。运用并列句叙述事实、描写事物或解事理可使文章的风格显得平实大方，毫无矫柔造作之感。

3.句子成分的排列

掉尾句

句子成分的排列是为表达内容服务的。不论是在口语中，还是在书面语中，一句话所传递的信息总是有其重心焦点(focus) 的。口语中的信息焦点（focus of information）是通过语调核心（nucleus）表示的。书面语的信息焦点只能借助语言成分的安排予以表示，其原则是―末尾着重‖，即把句子里较有―份量‖的成分放在句末，形成一种―高潮‖，使句子显得生动有力。―末尾着重‖在文体学中称作―掉尾‖(the period),按着这一原则构成的句子就叫做―掉尾句‖或―圆周句‖(the periodic sentence).因为―圆周句‖。

4. 倒装句( Inversion)

倒装也是一种调整语义核心的方法,使用倒装句可以使句子的某个成分突出,产生强调作用.英语句子中词与词的关系，一般不是由词尾的变化来表示，而主要依靠词序来体现。句子中正常词序的任何变化，都会同原句在意义上、程度上、或语气上有一定的区别，因此倒装形式也是文体中取得某种效果的修辞手段。

5. 反问句（Rhetorical Question ）

反问句是一种疑问形式表示肯定或否定意义的句式，表示强烈的肯定意义和否定意义，即不需要说话人（或作者）回答，也不需要听话人（或读者）回答，用反问句来表示或强调一个概念，比用一般肯定句或否定句更有力量，语气更重。肯定形式的反诘句可以表达强烈的否定意义：

6. 句子的长度

英语的句子按其结构分为简单句、并列句、复合句三类，但就长度来讲，简单句并非都很短，而复合句也不一定都很长。句子的长度是变化无穷的。长句和短句都有不同的文体作用。

1）长句与短句

在对书面语进行文体分析时，我们常把句子的长度(length)看作是构成文体特点的一种因素。长句(long sentence)和短句(short sentence)各有其文体功能。

短句是指字数不多的句子，而不论该句的句法结构如何。短句便于组织和表达、随便自然，口语中、非正式场合使用最多。同时，短句子干脆利落、简洁明快、结构简单，语法关系明确，明白易懂，能产生生动活泼的表达效果。用短句来表达一个信息，能迅速抓住对方注意力，收到一目了然、立竿见影的效果，因此也常见于广告、成语、标语、谚语、警句中。在文学作品中，短句是一种常用技巧，它具有直接、清楚、有力、明快等特点，用来强调或突出所陈述的事实或所表达的概念，如出现于长句前后，更能收到言简意赅的效果。

长句：同短句比较，长句能够表达更为复杂的概念，形式上显得庄重严肃，所以多出现于正式场合和书面语中，如学术论文、政府文献、科技资料、会议发言等。长句结构复杂，容量大，可以表达复杂的思想。在政论文体和科技文体中使用长句可以做到叙事具体，说理严密：

作业：

1．举例说明简单句与省略句的文体功能。

2．并列句和复合句具有什么文体功能？

3．―反诘句‖的文体功能是什么？使用设问句能产生什么样的表达效果？

4．举例说明句子的长度与文体风格之间的关系。

第九章Style of literary Works

1.The definition of the Literary language.

文学是反映真实的、富于想象的语言艺术。它至少包含三个要素：真实(truth)、想象(imagination)、和美(beauty)。一个作品有了这三种品质，它就可能有感人的力量和永恒的价值。

2. The relation between Literary Language and Ordinary Language.

As language art, literature seems to offer a language which is different from the ?normal‘ or ?everyday‘ language of a speech community. If we say that normal use of language tends to be clearly referential, then literary language tends to be richer in its connotations. If we say that everyday language tends to perform an informative function, then literary language tends to perform an affective function----appealing more to the emotions of the reader. Literary language has been chosen and manipulated with great care and complexity than the average occurance of special or deviant features than nonliterary varieties.

1）人民群众日常用的语言是文学语言的源泉。作家为了反映社会生活，为了塑造各种各样的人物形象，必然使用社会各阶层所使用的语言。以刻画人物为主要任务的小说和戏剧，在很大程度上是由人们在实际生活中所使用的语言构成的，戏剧尤其如此。

2）文学语言基本上遵守一般语言的规范；在句法上、词义上、词的用法上接受一般语言的惯例。文学作家必须这样做的道理也是很清楚的。首先他是在本民族语言环境中成长起来的，是使用本民族语言的一个成员；其次他是为使用本民族语言的读者而创作的，他必须使读者能够理解他的作品，而且理解得越透彻越好。为此，他最好在大众所熟悉得语言规范得范围内使用语言。

3）作家一般不是机械地搬用或照原样复现大众的语言，而是予以提炼和加工，予以改进或改造。人们平常说话，总免不了句法和用词上的错误或不妥之处，也不时有些重复和罗嗦；即使说得很准确，所用的词汇和句型也是有限的。但在文学作品中，作家除了有意地使用不标准的语言以突出人物特点之外，一般都用正确、通畅、有表达力，甚至使非常文雅和精练的语言。

4）文学语言可以突破一般语言的规范或者打破常规。在句法上、构词法上、词义上，作家，尤其是诗人，似乎有创新的自由；他们的创新往往被读者，至少是一部分读者所接受。他们偶尔还创造新词，或使用外来词。这种离开常规的变异是文学语言中的一个十分有趣的现象，它对于文学风格有明显的影响，因而引起许多语

言学家和文体学家的重视。

3. 语言现象对风格影响：

风格不能和内容（matter）区别开来。在一个作家形成一个思想的时候，他是用一种语言的形式形成这个思想的。那个语言形式就构成了他的风格，而风格又受这个思想的绝对统率。思想只能存在语言中，而且只能存在于一种语言形式中，你不可能用不同的方法说出完全相同的思想。只要稍稍改变以下表达的方法，你就稍稍改变了你的思想。很明显，改变表达方法而不改变被表达的思想是不可能的。一个思想表达多少就存在多少；只是在已经表达时它才存在，而不是在表达前就已存在。思想表达它自己。清楚的思想就会清楚地表达出来，模糊的思想则模糊地表达出来。文体分析就是研究语言的方法。我们对一个作家或作品的语言风格，只要稍加注意，就会得到一个大体的印象。如人们常常说某作家的语言平易自然，某作家的语言艰深文雅等等。但在进行文体分析的时候，不能全凭印象，而要找出具体的语言现象和特点。风格正是由作品中比较普遍的或占优势的某些语言现象和特点形成的。

4.语言现象对风格影响：

从词汇看，是日常生活中常用的口语化的小词多，还是文雅的大词多；是意思具体的词多，还是意思抽象的词多；

从句法看，是简单的短句多，还是复杂的长句多；

从语音看，是标准音还是方言，节奏快还是慢；

从修辞手段看，是用的多还是用得少；

从典故看，是用还是不用，用什么样的典故；

从篇章结构看，是简明还是复杂，是平铺直叙还是曲折迂回。

5.语言的表现风格

1) 藻丽与平实

藻丽的语言风格(the ornate style)与平实的语言风格( the plain style)是两种对立的表现风格。它们各有千秋，均常见于英美作家的笔下。

所谓藻丽指的是作品的语言华丽烂。充满形容词、副词等修饰语；用词常较晦涩；较多地运用比喻、夸张等修辞手法，使语言富有形象色彩和感情色彩。此外，藻丽的语言风格还常体现在句子结构上。一般说来，句子较长，结构也较复杂，并常使用排比结构。在十七世纪以前的英国文坛上，藻丽的语言风格颇为流行。

藻丽的语言风格更常见于文学文体中，特别是在小说、诗歌和抒情的散文中。

平实的语言风格指的是扎扎实实、平铺直叙地进行描写或叙述；少用修饰性得语言成分；少用比喻、夸张等修辞手法；讲求语言得朴素美。在阅读现代英美文学作品时，我们常可发现这种风格。

2) 繁丰于简洁

繁丰的风格(the involved style)并不指叙述罗嗦累赘，而是指不吝惜笔墨，力求详尽无遗，作到细腻入微。它与简洁(terse)的风格形成鲜明的对照。

小说中的简洁风格也是常被人们推崇的。在这方面，Hemingway 的文笔更具有代表性，不论是叙述事实，铺陈景物，还是揭示人物的心里活动，Hemingway 都能做到简洁，而所表达的思想又十分深刻，引人深思不止。

6. 英诗的语言特征

1) 诗的特点

文学的一些共同特性：它是语言的艺术，反映人们的生活、思想和感情，充满想象，有美的形式，有感染力，有永恒的价值，等等。作为文学的一种形式，诗也具

备这些特性。

诗的语言:有三种语言风格：古雅的、普通的、和奇特的.

（1）．一般来说，诗不传授知识，不叙述真实的事件，不描写真实的人物，甚至讲故事的诗在我们常读的诗中也不算多。因而诗反映生活往往是间接的、曲折的，但同时又是深刻的和强烈的。

（2）．比起其他文学形式来，诗更强调想象。没有想象，或者说没有新鲜的、奇特的想象、就很难成诗。想象也许可以认为是诗的灵魂。

（3）．诗有它独特的形式。一眼看上去，诗是由并列的短行构成，每行由一个大写字母开始，若干短行组成一节，这就和散文的句子连写，若干句组成一段不同。如果细听读诗，就会注意到诗句有一定的节奏，有清楚的尾韵，和音乐相似。所以有人说诗是“带有音乐性的思想”。

（4）．除音乐性外，诗的语言特别优美和精练。形象、比喻、象征等手段用得多而巧妙。如果说文学语言比一般语言美，那么诗的语言比其他文学语言又更美一些。散文的读者一般只要求理解意思，所得到的意思往往可以用不同于原文的说法表达出来而不至于有很多损失。但诗的读者不仅要求理解意思，而且要求欣赏诗的语言之美；而为了说明一首诗的感受，往往必须逐字重复那首诗的语言。

（5）．诗的语言，在词汇和句法方面，和一般文学语言有一致之处，也有不同之处。这些诗人故意用一些日常不同的词语，在句法上也打破常规，颠来倒去。他们有所谓“诗的破格自由”。他们这样做，是为了产生特殊的效果。诗的词汇和句法的独特之处，也就是对常规来说的变异，是值得研究的，因为它是构成风格的重要因素。诗，粗略地说，有三种语言风格：古雅的、普通的、和奇特的。这三种风格当然不是可以分得一清二楚的；实际上它们之间重叠之处很多，尤其是我们称之为―普通‖的语言必然会进入另外两种风格，因为本来它就是语言的核心部分。有些诗的语言风格很可能是介乎两种风格之间的。也有些诗，就其主要倾向来说，可以归属于某种风格，但其中也会有别的风格的成分。

我们学习怎样分析诗的语言和风格，乃是为了加深对诗的理解。提高对诗的欣赏能力。在分析的时候，我们只能从某一方面着手，如节奏、音韵、词汇、句法，等等。但在理解和欣赏一首诗的时候，必须全面注意它的各个方面，各个成分，把它当作一个整体对待；要看，要读，要听、更要在内心里感受它的力量和影响。

2) 英诗的节奏与格律

节奏实际上是自然界的一个原则。四季的交替，月亮的盈亏，潮水的气伏，都有各自的节奏。对于人来说，心的跳动，肺的呼吸，腿的行动，也是有节奏的。很多劳动都有节奏，如打槌、拉锯、挖土。音乐、舞蹈、诗歌，在一定意义上，表现了自然和生命所固有的节奏。

诗（peotry）常被看作是“节奏创造的美”(the rhythm miccreation of beauty‖。它不仅供人阅读与欣赏，而且是供人吟诵的。

一首诗往往包含若干诗节（stanza/ strophe）;每一节诗又分若干行（verse/line）；每一行诗又分为若干音步（foot）。音步是由重读音节和非重读音节按照一定的规则排列而成的，由此产生诗的格律（meter/measure）。英诗讲究节奏（rhythm）与和声（harmony）;而节奏与和声来自诗的格律、音步和韵脚。英诗的格律、音步和韵脚是有一定规律

英语文体学教程

Chapter1 1, what is style in your opinion according to what we have studied in this chapter? Anwser1 , from the perspective of the content, the events and activities described ,style is saying different things in different ways ;from the perspective of the ways of expression used ,styled is same thing in different ways; from the perspective of the users of language ,style is different speakers using language in different ways; and from the perspective of the text ,style is the functions of texts for different purposes. Anwser2, the definition of style is the concept of style as choice .this definition can have at least too interpretations .one is that first we have a pre-existing thought ,and then we choice the appropriate type of expression to express it in language. The chosen expression is the style .another is that the choice refers to the choice of meaning. The choice of language is at the same time a choice of meaning and a choice of style . 2,what is the significance of studying the style of language in learning and teaching English? Anwser, the answer is that if we want to use language appropriately in different situations , we need to study style .as foreign language learners, if we disregard the rules of using what variety of language in what occasion , or fail to obey them through ignorance , language can become instead a barrier to successful communication . Therefore its necessary to have a clear awareness of how language should be used in different types of situations especially in unfamiliar situations. 3, what factors can result in differences in style ? Answer , 1, the different types of vocabulary create different images of the events in the rea der’s mind, so they can result in different styles.2,people living in different periods of time in history will also speak differently ,and that will result in a different style. Chapter2 1, explain the following terms 1),foregrounding: the stylistically significant features have to be prominent and motivated ,that is ,foregrounded. 2),incongruity: the linguistic features depart from the normal use of language ,breaking the rules grammar ,spelling ,pronunciation. 3)deflection : the linguistic features don’t depart from the established grammatical, lexical and logical rules and principles ,but have an unexpected high frequency of occurrence. 4),field; its concerned with what is happening ,including the subject matter,the events happenings,going-ons, the content ,etc 5)tenor: its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener ,their relative status,their attitude,and their role relations . 6)mode: its concerned with how the interaction is conducted ,that is whether it is written or spoken ,or whether it is expressed by phonic substance or graphic substance. 2,question for discussion 2)in rhetorical series,the number of items can influence the stylistic effect.try to analyze the causes on the basis of social culture. Answer :different numbers of words can produce different stylistic effects in the appropriate contexts. Two items express assertion ,that is ,it is just this ,not that .In appropriate situations three items can produce ethic ,persuasive, and representative effect. Four or more items in a series

英语文体学

Unit 5 Formal vs Informal Language 英教0901班董宜之程雅洁田冬雪

Contents 5.1 The interpersonal function of language 5.2 Degrees of formality 5.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality 5.4 Martin Joo’s Classification 5.5 Speech situation and formality 5.6 Formality and linguistic features 5.7 Sets of co-occurring features 5.8 Involved vs informational texts 5.9 Tenors, field, and mode

5.1 The interpersonal function of language 1.Functions of language: ●the ideational / referential function ●the interpersonal / social / expressive function ●the textual function 2. Tenors of discourse: the relationship between participants in the situation, their roles and status. The participant relations that determine the tenor of discourse range through varying degrees of permanence.

英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征几对基本概念 (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language \Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the

英语文体学 1

English Stylistics 英语文体学 Course Introduction Course title: English Stylistics Course hours: 2 per week, 34 in total Assessment: 1. Attendance 2. After-class preparation for related topics 3. In-class performance and involvement 4. Quiz 5. Final exam Teaching Objectives: Have a systematic knowledge of the features of different varieties of language Make appropriate use of language in our communication Familiarize ourselves with the stylistic features of the different genres of literature Deepen our understanding and appreciation of literary works Offer useful ideas on translation and language teaching Textbook: English Stylistics(英语文体学) Other reference books: Introduction to English Stylistics《英语文体学引论》（丁往道王佐良）

英语文体学讲稿

Chapter one: Introduction to Stylistics（4hrs） Definition of stylistics: Stylistics is a special kind of subject, which applies the techniques and concepts of modern linguistics to the study of literary texts. And it is based upon the idea that the examination or analysis of the language of a literary text can be a means to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the writer’s artistic achievement. So stylistics studies language as it is used in literary texts, with the aim of relating it to the artistic functions of language use. Stylistics is based upon the idea that all artistic works have content and form, usually the content can decide the form, but the other way round, the form can have counter-effect upon the content. It is also true of literary works. This definition does not mean that the learning of stylistics demands a great deal of linguistic knowledge. In stead, it requires the learner to be familiar with some basic concepts and traditional terms in grammar, phonetics, and rhetoric. And of course, the learner should also be curious and make full use of an explicit understanding of language——not just language used in the given literary context. Stylistic study/analysis Stylistics makes for a widening and deepening of the aesthetic taste. Leo Spitzer’s insistence is that the smallest detail of the used by in a particular literary text can unlock the soul of a literary work. That is, by noticing the smallest detail, the reader can understand and explain how a particular effect or meaning is achieved. Then the reader is more likely to appreciate the creation of the writer’s. Leo Spitzer: the only way to get out of the state of un-productivity is to read and reread. Summing up: Any stylistic study of a literary text starts from some curiosity or the curious noticing of some details or some special features of a particular case of language use, or such uses in a literary text. For in both linguistic and literary spheres, much rests on the intuition and personal judgment for which a system, however good, is an aid rather then a substitute. So interest and curiosity is the mother of stylistic discovery. And the method of getting some interest or insight is to read and reread the text you are going to analyze. It goes through the linguistic analysis of these details and comes to the realization of the special effects realized thereby.

837英语语言文学专业基础二

科目名称：英语语言文学专业基础二本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础50分、英美文学基础知识40分，英语国家概况30分，英汉互译30分。英语语言学基础（50分）一、考试要求考生应全面掌握语言学主要分支学科的基本知识、基本理论和基本方法。二、考试内容考生应掌握以下方面的内容： ●导论：语言的定义、特征、功能，语言学的主要分支学科，语言学中描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、能力与表现等概念。 ●语音与音系：语音的发生与感知、发音器官、语音的描写、协同发音、音位理论、音位变体、音系规则、区别特征、音节和重音。 ●词汇：词的概念，词的构成，词的变化。 ●句法：传统语法、结构语法、生成语法、功能语法的基本概念和基本方法。 ●语义和语用：语义和语用的基本概念和基本理论，语义关系、语义演变、言语行为理论、合作原则。 ●语言和社会：语言与文化的关系，语言的社会变体。 ●第一及第二语言习得：基本概念、主要研究方法和领域等三、考试题型填空题、名词解释题、简答题、论述题。英美文学基础知识（40分）一、考试要求本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 2）新古典主义时期（18世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 3）浪漫主义时期（19世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 4）维多利亚时期（19世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）现代时期（20世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。

英语文体学知识重点[1]教案资料

英语文体学知识重点 [1]

Chapter 1 Introduction · What is the English Stylistics？ It is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language. · What are language functions? a) To deliver some infor to other people b) To communicate with each other in society ·How do we express ourselves in a proper way? Several factors do work. a)Phonetics b)Vocabulary c)Grammar d)Some knowledge concerning English stylistics ·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. Why? Four examples: a) “ Hello ” and “ Hi ” b) “ Assist me! Assist me! ” and “ Aid! Aid! ” c) “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s O.K..” d) See next page d) “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to some non-linguistic factors. a) Sex ------ “ Oh, my God! ” b) Age ------ “ Cheers! ” and “ Bye for now. ” c) Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ” d) Received education ------ “ go to W.C. ” e) Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job? ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylistics? a) It will help us to express ourselves in English properly. b) It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles. c) It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes. d) It will help us to go at literary criticism. e) It will help us to do the translation work well. Chapter 2 Language Description & Stylistic Analysis ·There are 4 phonetic means in English: 1) stress 2) Intonation 3) pause 4) voice quality. ·Stress has several apparent stylistic and grammatical functions. (1) The first function is for emphasis. (2) The second function is to change the meaning or the part of speech of some words, or both. (3) The third function is to differ some English words (4) The fourth function is to show someone’s surprise, anger, fear, doubt, pleasure, etc.. ·Intonation can be employed to express people’s happiness, sadness, certainty, hesitation, depression, etc. There are 5 pitches in phonetics: 收集于网络，如有侵权请联系管理员删除

《英语文体学》1-7总结

第一章文体学相关研究内容文体学分为普通文体学和文学文体学，二者有重叠部分，但在此我们所研究的是普通文体学，文体学研究的是语言风格，对语言，人们的理解有很多种，但不管哪种说法，无可否认，语言都是人类表达思想、互相交流的手段，并且有很多具不同意旨的言语事件；风格是与说话人的语言习惯、时代背景相关的，是人门特有的表达方式，因人而异，对语言起到一定修饰作用并且关系到语言表达的有效性。因此，文体学研究会涉及各种语言变体及相关特征、功用。文体学对提高理解力和鉴赏水平有很大帮助。此外，文体学还与语言学、修辞学及文学评论等相关联。接下来的章节中将具体阐述相关内容。第二章文体学研究的必要性学习文体学可以提高我们语言使用的精确性，犹如不能在婚礼上穿牛仔装一样，语言使用要合乎当时、当地的具体环境，这就涉及文体学中的言语事件；学习文体学有利于提高我们对文学作品的理解与鉴赏水平，因为文学创作中，作者不可避免会对作品的语言、风格做选择，在文学评论三部曲（描述、解读、评估）中会涉及相关内容；文体学对满足翻译适应性有很大帮助，翻译很难做到完全对应，但基本原则一致是必须的，如作品基调、作品体裁等一致。以上文体学内容中都有涉及。第三章语言变体在不同的社交场合，有不同的约定俗成的语体。根据特定场合的语言习惯及其中特定说话人的语言使用，语言变体可以分为两种：方言变体和语域变体。方言变体与不同的语言使用者相关，分为个人方言、时间方言、地域方言、社会方言和标准方言；语域变体与不同社交场合相关，其构成要素是语场、语式和语旨。两种变体并非独立存在而是有一定的相关性，比如，在同一种族、同一领域或同一社会地位，为了增进了解，说话人可能会选择这一具某种共同特征人群的行内语言。此外，从语言变体中，我们还可以获知说话人的某些相关信息，如职业、国家和说话意旨等。第四章语言描述了解了语言变体，本章节探讨各种语言变体的具体表述问题，即具体语言表述。在这个层面上，文体学提供了一种系统的分析方法，使我们对付各种文章轻而易举。文体学上对语言描述的研究分别从语言层次上着手，即从音系、语相上，词汇语法上和语义上着手。各个层次上的具体特征表现共同或分别作用于文章整体，以达到某种表达效果。因此，在对语言描述进行具体分析时，就要着眼于这几个层次上的文体特征，具体步骤：系统浏览文章并记录具有已述特征的语言点；量化语言特征的使用频率；评估文体特征在文中的重要意义；对文章总体进行综合评述，尤其是对逻辑关系和整体思路。另外，我们可以将这种方法应用到对变体种类和语场的分析中。第五章正式语和非正式语语言所承载的基本功能是人际交流功能，根据参与者和具体语言环境，语言有正式和非正式的差别。说话人社会地位愈高、具体场合愈正式，语言使用就越严谨、越正式；在日常对话或与关系愈亲密的人对话时，语言使用就越生活化、越轻松。语言使用的正式程度与话语意旨密切相关，由此产生日常习语、法律术语、政治术语等等专门语言，Martin Joos将正式程度变化划分五级：僵化、正式、咨询、随便、亲密。不同语言环境下，语言正式度会不同，说话人会随外部语言环境自行调节。正式用语与非正式用语在词汇、音调、语义上都有所不同，前者用词多是正式书面化，吐词清晰、完整，逻辑性强；后者则相反。根据同现限制原则，我们可以分辨语言使用的正式程度高低。第六章口语和书面语根据语言传播媒介，语言分为口语和书面语，二者在很多方面均有不同。与书面语相比，口语一般是说话人与听话人面对面交流，说话人需要听话人关注，并及时得到反馈，所以多

英语文体学知识重点[1]

v1.0 可编辑可修改 1 Chapter 1 Introduction · What is the English Stylistics It is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language. · What are language functions a) To deliver some infor to other people b) To communicate with each other in society ·How do we express ourselves in a proper way Several factors do work. a) Phonetics b) Vocabulary c) Grammar d) Some knowledge concerning English stylistics ·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. Why Four examples: a) “ Hello ” and “ Hi ” b) “ Assist me! Assist me! ” and “ Aid! Aid! ” c) “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s ..” d) See next page d) “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to some non-linguistic factors. a) Sex ------ “ Oh, my God! ” b) Age ------ “ Cheers! ” and “ Bye for now. ” c) Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ” d) Received education ------ “ go to . ” e) Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylistics a) It will help us to express ourselves in English properly. b) It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles. c) It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes.

英语文体学1答案

英语文体学1答案一、单项选择题（本大题共5小题，每小题4分，共20分）1、C 2、C 3、D 4、D 5、D 二、填空题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分） 1、knowl edge 2、bilabial 3、morphol ogy 4、sentence 5、compl ete 三、判断改错题（本大题共5小题，每小题4分，共20分） 1、F Actually mod ern linguistics lays more emphasis on the spoken form of language than the written form for a number of reasons. 2、F Voicing distinguishes meaning in English but not in Chinese. 3、F The meaning of some compound words has nothing to d o with the sum total of the meanings of their components, such as the compound "red coat". 4、F Apart from S and C, they also refer to a word, or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function. 5、F Dialectal synonyms can often be found not only in different regional dial ects such as British English and American English but also within the variety itself. For exampl e, within British English, "girl" is call ed "lassie" in Scottish dial ect, and "liquor" is call ed "whishey" in Irish dial ect .四、名词解释题（本大题共5小题，每小题6分，共30分） 1、One of the major d efining features of human language. Human language consists of two l evels. At the l ower l evel, there are a limited number of sounds which are meaningl ess whil e at the higher l evel there are an unlimited number of combinations of these sounds. It is also known as d oubl e articulation. 2、Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, e.g.the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 3、A way to transcribe speech sounds. The basic principl e is to use one l etter to indicate one sound. It is generally used in dictionaries and language teaching textbooks. 4、The rul es that govern which affix can be add ed to what type of stem to form a new word, e.g.-ly can be ad d ed to a noun to form an adjective. 5、a rewrite rul e that allows for the possibl e combinations of words to form phrases and sentences 五、论述题（共20分） 1、The inventory of sounds can change, and sound changes includ e changes in vowel sounds, sound l oss, sound ad dition, and sound movement. 1) Vowel sound change: English has und ergone the systematic and regular change in the vowel sounds, known as the Great Vowel shift which occurred at the end of the Mid dl e English period and which involved seven l ong, or tense vowels. These changes l ed to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphemes, i.e. between pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English, e.g.five→/fi:v/(Middl e English)→/faiv/(Mod ern English) 2) Sound l oss: Sounds can change by the l oss of phonemes. In the history of English the velar fricative /x/ was l ost. This sound existed in Ol d English, so "night" was pronounced as /nixt/, but in Mod ern English, its pronunciation is /nait/. 3) Sound addition: Sound addition includ es the gain or insertion of a sound. For exampl e, the word l eisure was borrowed from French, so the phoneme /3/ was add ed to the inventory of English sounds. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the mid dl e of a word is known as epenthesis, e.g.spinl e--spindl e. 4) Sound movement: Sound change as a result of sound movement known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. Metathesis is l ess common, but it d oes exist. In some dial ects of English, for example, the word ask is pronounced /? ks/. Also, brid d ("bird") is an Ol d English word. When metathesis occurred to this word, the movement of /r/ sound to the right of the vowel sound resulted in its Mod ern English counterpart "bird".

英语文体学教案

英语文体学教程

最新英语文体学知识重点

英语文体学

英语语言学基础知识

英语文体学 1

英语文体学讲稿

837英语语言文学专业基础二

英语文体学知识重点[1]教案资料

《英语文体学》1-7总结

英语文体学知识重点[1]

英语文体学1答案