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专业英语翻译1

专业英语翻译1
专业英语翻译1

Basic Chemistry

1. Atomic Structure

Matter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means.

Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a positive (+) charge, neutrons have no charge --they are neutral. Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-).

It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number. The number of protons in an element is constant but neutron number may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary.

1。原子结构

物质有质量,占空间。原子是物质的基本组成物,不能用普通的方法进行化学细分。

质子和中子都驻留在原子核中。质子有一个正电荷,中子是不带电的,它们是中性的。电子在原子核周围的轨道上。他们有一个负电荷(-)。

它是确定原子序数的质子数。在一个元素中的质子的数量是恒定的,但中子数可能会有所不同,所以质量数(质子+中子)可能会有所不同。

The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same, although the physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form, perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen, with atomic number of 8 can have 8, 9, or 10 neutrons.

相同的元素可能含有不同数量的中子,这些元素的这些形式被称为同位素。同位素的化学性质是相同的,虽然一些同位素的物理性质可能是不同的。一些同位素是放射性的,这意味着它们“辐射”能量,因为它们衰变到一个更稳定的形式,也许另一个元素半衰期:所需的元素的原子的一半,衰变成稳定的形式。另一个例子是氧气,原子数为8,可以有8,9,或10个中子。

Here is a list of the basic characteristics of atoms:

●An atom is a basic chemical building block of matter. Atoms cannot be divided using chemicals.

They do consist of parts, which include protons, neutrons, and electrons, but an atom is a basic

chemical building block of matter.

●Each electron has a negative electrical charge.

●Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The charge of a proton and an electron are equal in

magnitude, yet opposite in sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each other.

这里是一个原子的基本特征列表:

●原子是一个基本的化学构建块的事。原子不可分为使用化学物质。他们做的包括部分,其中包括质子,中子和电子,但原子是一个基本的化学物质块的物质。

●每个电子带负电荷。

●每个质子带正电荷。一个质子和一个电子的电荷在数量上是相等的,而在符号相反。电子和质子相互电吸引。

●Each neutron is electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do not have a charge and are not

electrically attracted to either electrons or protons.

●Protons and neutrons are about the same size as each other and are much larger than electrons.

The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron. The mass of a proton is 1840

times greater than the mass of an electron.

●The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical

charge.

●每个中子是电中性的。换言之,中子不带电,也没有电吸引到电子或质子。

●质子与中子的大小相同、互比电子大得多。质子的质量与中子的质量基本上是相同的。质子的质量比电子的质量大1840倍。

●原子包含质子和中子的核。细胞核携带正电荷。

●Electrons move around outside the nucleus.

●Almost all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus; almost all of the volume of an atom is occupied

by electrons.

●The number of protons (also known as its atomic number) determines the element. Varying the

number of neutrons results in isotopes. Varying the number of electrons results in ions. Isotopes

and ions of an atom with a constant number of protons are all variations of a single element.

●电子绕核外。

●几乎所有原子的质量是其核心;几乎所有原子的原子量是通过电子占领。

●质子数(也被称为原子数)决定元素。改变同位素的中子数。改变离子的数量。具有恒定数量的质子的原子的同位素和离子都是一个单一元素的变化。

●The particles within an atom are bound together by powerful forces. In general, electrons are

easier to add or remove from an atom than a proton or neutron. Chemical reactions largely

involve atoms or groups of atoms and the interactions between their electrons.

●原子内部的粒子是由强大的力量结合在一起。在一般情况下,电子是更容易添加或删除从一个原子比一个质子或中子。化学反应在很大程度上涉及原子或原子团,以及它们的电子之间的相互作用。

2. Chemical Bonding

Atoms are the basic building blocks of all types of matter. Atoms link to other atoms through chemicals bonds resulting from the strong attractive forces that exist between the atoms.

So what exactly is a chemical bond? It is a region that forms when electrons from different atoms interact with each other. The electrons that participate in chemical bonds are the valence electrons, which are the electrons found in an atom's outermost shell. When two atoms approach each other these outer electrons interact. Electrons repel each other, yet they are attracted to the protons within atoms. The interplay of forces results in some atoms forming bonds with each other and sticking together.

2。化学键

原子是所有类型物质的基本组成块。原子通过化学键连接到其他原子,产生的原子之间存在着很强的引力作用。

那么到底什么是化学键?当电子从不同的原子相互作用时,它是一个形成的区域。参与化学键的电子是价电子,这是在原子的最外层中发现的电子。当两个原子相互接近时,这些外电子相互作用。电子相互排斥,但它们被原子内的质子所吸引。在某些原子的相互作用,形成相互联系,并粘在一起的原子。

⑴Ionic bonds

Ionic bonds arise from elements with low electronegativity(almost empty outer shells) reacting with elements with high electronegativity (mostly full outer shells). In this case there is a complete transfer of electrons.

A well known example is table salt, sodium chloride. Sodium gives up its one outer shell electron completely to chlorine which needs only one electron to fill its shell. Thus, the attraction between these atoms is much like static electricity since opposite charges attract.

⑴离子键

离子键出现低电负性元素(几乎是空的外壳)具有高电负性元素的反应(主要是完整的外壳)。在这种情况下,有一个完整的电子转移。

一个众所周知的例子是表盐,氯化钠。钠完全将它的一个外壳电子完全化为氯,只需要一个电子来填充它的外壳。因此,这些原子之间的吸引力是很像静电,因为相反的电荷吸引。

⑵Covalent bond

Covalent bonds involve a complete sharing of electrons and occurs most commonly between atoms that have partially filled outer shells or energy levels. Thus if the atoms are similar in negativity then the electrons will be shared. Carbon forms covalent bonds. The electrons are in hybrid orbitals formed by the atoms involved as in this example: ethane. Diamond is strong because it involves a vast network of covalent bonds between the carbon atoms in the diamond.

⑵共价键

共价键涉及一个完整的共享电子,发生最常见的原子之间的部分填充的外壳或能量水平。因此,如果原子类似于负性,那么电子将被共享。碳形成共价键。电子在混合轨道形成的原子所涉及的在这个例子:乙烷。钻石是强大的,因为它涉及到一个巨大的网络中的碳原子之间的共价键的钻石。

⑶Polar Covalent Bond.

These bonds are in between covalent and ionic bonds in that the atoms share electrons but the electrons spend more of their time around on atom versus the others in the compound. This type of bond occurs when the atoms involved differ greatly in electronegativity. The most familiar example is water. Oxygen is much more electronegative than hydrogen, and so the electrons involved in bonding the water molecule spend more time there. The fact that water is a polar covalently bonded molecule has a number of implications for molecules that are dissolved in water. In particular, molecules with polar covalent bonds can break apart when they encounter water molecules. They are broken apart because of the electrical attraction between the dissimilar charges of the molecules. Also, since ionically bonded molecules involve ions with opposite charges, water with its polar covalent bonds can separate ions from each other and then surround the ions which prevents them from recombining. The properties of water all relate to this polar covalent bonding.

⑶极性共价键。

这些债券是在共价键和离子键之间,原子共享电子,但电子花费更多的时间在原子与其他化合物在化合物中的原子之间的相互关系。这类债券时所涉及的原子电负性大不同。最熟悉的例子是水。氧的电负性高于氢多,所以参与键合的水分子会花更多的时间在电子。

水是一个极性共价键的分子的事实,有一些对溶解在水中的分子的影响。特别是,极性共价键的分子可以打破分开时,他们遇到水分子。他们被打破了,因为分子的不同电荷之间的电引力。同时,由于离子键分子与带有相反电荷的离子,其极性共价键离子水可以分开彼此,然后围绕离子阻止重组。水的性质都与这种极性共价键合。

⑷Hydrogen Bond.

The fact that the oxygen end of a water molecule is negatively charged and the hydrogen end positively charged

means that the hydrogens of one water molecule attract the oxygen of its neighbor and vice versa. This is because unlike charges attract. This largely electrostatic attraction is called a hydrogen bond and is important in determining many important properties of water that make it such an important liquid for living things. Water can also form this type of bond with other polar molecules or ions such as hydrogen or sodium ions. Further, hydrogen bonds can occur within and between other molecules. For instance, the two strands of a DNA molecule are held together by hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the amino acids of proteins are involved in maintaining the protein's proper shape.

This picture represents a small group of water molecules. Hydrogen bonds between unlike charges are shown as lines without arrows on the ends. The double arrowed lines represent the fact that like charges repel each other. Both hydrogen bonds and the repelling forces balance each other and are both are important in determining the properties of water.

⑷氢键。

事实上,一个水分子的氧端带负电荷和正电荷的氢的结束意味着一个水分子的氢原子吸引氧邻国和反之亦然。这是因为不同的收费吸引。这在很大程度上是静电引力被称为氢键,是重要的,在确定许多重要的水的性质,使它成为一个重要的生活的东西的液体。水也可以形成这种类型的键与其他的极性分子或离子,如氢或钠离子。此外,氢键可以发生在和其他分子之间的。例如,一个DNA分子的两条链通过氢键结合在一起。水分子与蛋白质的氨基酸之间的氢键参与维持蛋白质的适当的形状。

这张照片代表了一小组水分子。不同电荷之间的氢键被显示为两端没有箭头的线。双箭头线代表的是同种电荷互相排斥。氢键和排斥力相互平衡,都是在确定水的性质很重要。

3. Types of chemical reactions

A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the conversion of reactants into product or products. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. A type of a chemical reaction is usually characterized by the type of chemical change, and it yields one or more products which are, in general, different from the reactants.

Generally speaking, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds.

三.化学反应的类型

化学反应是一个过程,总是会导致反应物转化为产品或产品。最初参与化学反应的物质或物质称为反应物。一种化学反应的类型通常是由化学变化的类型,它产生一个或多个产品,在一般情况下,不同的反应物。

一般来说,化学反应包括改变,严格涉及电子在化学键的形成和断裂的运动。

Chemical equations are often used to describe the chemical transformations of elementary particles that occur during the reaction. Chemical changes are a result of chemical reactions. All chemical reactions involve a change in substances and a change in energy.

However, neither matter nor energy is created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. There are so many chemical reactions that it is helpful to classify them into different types including the widely used terms for describing common reactions.

化学方程经常被用来描述在反应过程中发生的基本粒子的化学变换。化学变化是化学反应的结果。所有的化学反应都涉及物质的变化和能量的变化。

然而,无论是物质还是能量都在化学反应中被创造或毁灭。有这么多的化学反应,它有助于将它们分类成不同的类型,包括广泛使用的术语来描述常见的反应。

Combination reaction or synthesis reaction: it is a reaction in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product.

Example: N2 + 3 H2 ? 2 NH3

组合反应或合成反应:它是一种反应,其中2个或更多的化学元素或化合物结合起来,形成一个更复杂的产品。

Isomerisation reaction: is a reaction in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition.

Example: trans-2-butene and cis-2-butene are isomers. Chemical decomposition reaction or analysis: is a reaction in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds or elements:

Example: 2 H2O ? 2 H2 + O2

异构化反应是一个反应的化合物进行结构重排不净原子组成的任何变化。例如:反式-2-丁烯和反-2-丁烯是我萨默斯。化学分解反应或分析:是一种反应,其中一种化合物被分解成较小的化合物或元素:

Single displacement or substitution: this type of reaction is characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more reactive element.

Example: 2 Na(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ? 2 NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

单置换或置换:这种类型的反应,其特征在于由一个元素被流离失所的化合物由一个更活泼的元素。

Metathesis or Double displacement reaction: represents a reaction in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds to form different compounds

置换或双取代反应:表示的反应物或债券交换离子形成不同的化合物

Acid-base reactions: broadly these reactions are characterized as reactions between an acid and a base, can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are:

酸碱反应:广泛的反应,其特征是酸和碱之间的反应,可以有不同的定义,这取决于所采用的酸碱平衡。一些最常见的是:

Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH- ions. Br?nsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors.

阿伦尼乌斯的定义:酸游离在水中释放H3O+离子;碱游离在水中释放OH-离子。

Br nsted?Lowry定义:酸是质子(H +)者;碱是质子的受体。

Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors.

Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ? NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

刘易斯定义:酸是电子对受体;碱是电子对供体。

Redox reactions: are reactions in which changes in oxidation numbers of atoms in involved species occur. Those reactions can often be interpreted as transfer of electrons between different molecular sites or species. Example: 2 S2O32?(aq) + I2(aq) ? S4O62?(aq) + 2 I?(aq)

氧化还原反应:在所涉及的物种中的原子的氧化数的变化的反应发生。这些反应通常可以被解释为不同的分子位点或物种之间的电子转移。

In this case, I2 is reduced to I- and S2O32- (thiosulfate anion) is oxidized to S4O62-.

Combustion reaction: it is a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized products.

Example: C3H8 + 5 O2 ? 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

在这种情况下,I2减少到我和S2O32-(硫代硫酸根阴离子)氧化s4o62—。

燃烧反应:它是一种氧化还原反应,任何可燃物质都结合了氧化元素,通常是氧气,产生热,形成氧化产物。

Other types of chemical reactions include organic reactions which are found in organic chemistry.

其他化学反应的类型包括有机化学反应中发现的有机化学反应。

Organic reactions compose a wide variety of reactions involving compounds which have carbon as the main element in their molecular structure. In opposition to inorganic reactions, organic chemistry reactions are classified in large part by the types of the functional groups that exist within each compound. In this case the reactions are described by showing the mechanisms through which the changes take place.

有机反应合成了各种各样的反应,其中以碳为主要元素的化合物在分子结构中。在对无机反应的反对,有机化学反应是在很大程度上是由在每个化合物中存在的官能团的类型的分类。在这种情况下,反应被描述通过示出的机制,通过该变化发生。

Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction types are listed bellow:

- Addition reactions

- Elimination reactions

- Substitution reactions

- Redox reactions

- Rearrangement reactions

- Pericyclic reactions

有机反应是涉及有机化合物的化学反应。基本有机化学反应类型如下:

-加成反应

-消除反应

-取代反应

氧化还原反应

重排反应

Pericyclic反应

4. What factors influence the rate of a chemical reaction?

●Temperature

●Concentrations of reactants

●Catalysts

●Surface area of a solid reactant

●Pressure of gaseous reactants or products

4。什么因素影响一个化学反应的速率?

●温度

●反应物浓度

●催化剂

●固体反应物的表面积

●气态反应物或产物压力

If you are planning an investigation, I suggest that you investigate the effects of temperature or the effects of the concentration of the reactants because these will allow you to choose a suitable range of values for the controlled or independent variable. The dependent variable will be the rate of the reaction. Keep all the other variables fixed.

To make a prediction for your investigation you will have to ask yourself the question: What will happen to the rate of the reaction when I increase the temperature? or What will happen to the rate of the reaction if I increase the concentration of one of the reactants? The answer to that question is your prediction. The next thing to do is to explain your prediction. You will have to answer the question: Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the temperature? or Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the concentration of one of the reactions? The answer to this question is your explanation, and to get the highest possible marks, you will have to

provide a full scientific explanation.

如果你正在计划一项调查,我建议你调查温度的影响或反应物的浓度的影响,因为这些将允许你选择一个合适的范围内的值的控制或独立的变量。因变量将是反应的速率。保持所有其他变量固定。

要为你的调查做一个预测,你必须问自己:当我增加温度时,反应的速率会发生什么?如果我增加一个反应物的浓度,反应的速率会发生什么?这个问题的答案是你的预测。下一步要做的是解释你的预测。你将不得不回答这个问题:为什么反应会走得更快,如果我增加温度?或者,如果我增加一个反应的浓度,反应速度会更快?这个问题的答案是你的解释,并获得最高的可能的标志,你将不得不提供一个完整的科学解释。

Once you have written your hypothesis (prediction with explanation) you will decide how to do the experiments, i.e. write the proposed method.

一旦你写了你的假设(预测与解释),你将决定如何做实验,即写所提出的方法。

⑴How does temperature affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

When two chemicals react, their molecules have to collide with each other with sufficient energy for the reaction to take place. This is collision theory. The two molecules will only react if they have enough energy. By heating the mixture, you will raise the energy levels of the molecules involved in the reaction. Increasing temperature means the molecules move faster. This is kinetic theory. If your reaction is between atoms rather than molecules you just substitute "atom" for "molecule" in your explanation.

⑴温度会如何影响化学反应速率?

当两种化学物质发生反应时,它们的分子必须相互碰撞,以产生足够的能量来发生反应。这是碰撞理论。这两个分子只会反应,如果他们有足够的能量。通过加热混合物,你将提高在反应中所涉及的分子的能量水平。温度的升高意味着分子移动得更快。这是动力学理论。如果你的反应是原子之间的,而不是分子,你只是用“原子”的“分子”在你的解释。

⑵How do catalysts affect the rate of a reaction?

Catalysts speed up chemical reactions. Only very minute quantities of the catalyst are required to produce a dramatic change in the rate of the reaction. This is really because the reaction proceeds by a different pathway when the catalyst is present. Adding extra catalyst will make absolutely no difference. There is a whole page on this site devoted to catalysts.

⑵如何影响反应速率的催化剂?

催化剂加快化学反应。只有非常小的量的催化剂,需要产生一个戏剧性的反应速率的变化。这是真的,因为当催化剂存在时,通过一个不同的途径进行反应。添加额外的催化剂将绝对没有区别。在这个网站上有一个专门用于催化剂的整页。

⑶How does concentration affect the rate of a reaction?

Increasing the concentration of the reactants will increase the frequency of collisions between the two reactants. So this is collision theory again. You also need to discuss kinetic theory in an experiment where you vary the concentration. Although you keep the temperature constant, kinetic theory is relevant. This is because the molecules in the reaction mixture have a range of energy levels. When collisions occur, they do not always result in a reaction. If the two colliding molecules have sufficient energy they will react.

⑶如何浓度影响反应速率?

增加反应物的浓度会增加两种反应物之间的碰撞的频率。所以这又是碰撞理论。你还需要在一个实验中讨论的动力学理论,在那里你改变浓度。虽然你保持的温度常数,动力学理论是相关的。这是因为在反应混合物中的分子有一个范围的能量水平。当碰撞发生时,他们并不总是导致反应。如果这两个碰撞分子有足够的能量,他们会作出反应。

If reaction is between a substance in solution and a solid, you just vary the concentration of the solution.

The experiment is straightforward. If the reaction is between two solutions, you have a slight problem. Do you vary the concentration of one of the reactants or vary the concentration of both? You might find that the rate of reaction is limited by the concentration of the weaker solution, and increasing the concentration of the other makes no difference. What you need to do is fix the concentration of one of the reactants to excess. Now you can increase the concentration of the other solution to produce an increase in the rate of the reaction.

如果反应是在溶液中的一种物质和固体之间,你只是改变溶液的浓度。实验很简单。如果反应是在两个解决方案之间,你有一个轻微的问题。你有不同的反应物的浓度的浓度,或改变两者的浓度?你可能会发现,反应的速率是有限的,由较弱的溶液的浓度,和增加的其他的浓度没有差异。你需要做的是把一个反应物的浓度固定在过量的。现在你可以增加其他溶液的浓度,以产生反应速率的增加。

⑷How does surface area affect a chemical reaction?

If one of the reactants is a solid, the surface area of the solid will affect how fast the reaction goes. This is because the two types of molecule can only bump into each other at the liquid solid interface, i.e. on the surface of the solid. So the larger the surface area of the solid, the faster the reaction will be.

⑷如何表面积影响的化学反应?

如果一个反应物是固体,固体的表面积会影响反应的速度。这是因为这两种类型的分子只能在液-固界面上相互碰撞,即在固体表面上。因此,固体的表面积越大,反应的速度越快。

Smaller particles have a bigger surface area than larger particle for the same mass of solid. There is a simple way to visualize this. Take a loaf of bread and cut it into slices. Each time you cut a new slice, you get an extra surface onto which you can spread butter and jam. The thinner you cut the slices, the more slices you get and so the more butter and jam you can put on them. This is "Bread and Butter Theory". You should have come across the idea in your biology lessons. By chewing your food you increase the surface area so that digestion can go faster.

较小的粒子有一个更大的比较大的粒子的表面积为相同的质量的固体。有一个简单的方法来可视化这个。拿一块面包切成片。每一次你切一个新的片,你得到一个额外的表面上,你可以传播黄油和果酱。你切的越薄切片,你得到的越多,所以你可以穿上更多的黄油和果酱。这是“面包和黄油理论”。你应该在你的生物课上遇到这个想法。通过咀嚼你的食物,你增加了表面积,使消化可以更快。

⑸What affect does pressure have on the reaction between two gasses?

You should already know that the atoms or molecules in a gas are very spread out. For the two chemicals to react, there must be collisions between their molecules. By increasing the pressure, you squeeze the molecules together so you will increase the frequency of collisions between them. This is collision theory again.

⑸影响压在两气体之间的反应?

你应该已经知道,气体中的原子或分子是非常分散的。对于这两种化学物质的反应,他们的分子之间必须有碰撞。通过增加压力,你把分子挤在一起,这样你就可以增加他们之间的碰撞频率。这是一碰撞理论。

In a diesel engine, compressing the gaseous mixture of air and diesel also increases the temperature enough to produce combustion. Increasing pressure also results in raising the temperature. It is not enough in a petrol engine to produce combustion, so petrol engines need a spark plug. When the petrol air mixture has been compressed, a spark from the plug ignites the mixture. In both cases the reaction (combustion) is very fast. This is because once the reaction has started, heat is produced and this will make it go even faster.

在柴油发动机,压缩空气的气体混合物和柴油也会增加足以产生燃烧的温度。越来越大的压力也在升高温度结果。它是不够的在汽油发动机产生燃烧,所以汽油发动机需要一个火花塞。当汽油空气混合气被压缩,火星塞点燃混合物。在这两种情况下的反应(燃烧)是非常快。这

是因为反应开始后,热量产生,这将使它走得更快。

5. pH

The concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution is very important for living things. This is because the hydrogen ions are positively charged they alter the charge environment of other molecules in solution. By putting different forces on the molecules, the molecules change shape from their normal shape. This is particularly important for proteins in solution because the shape of a protein is related to its function.

5。酸碱度

在溶液中的氢离子的浓度是非常重要的生物。这是因为氢离子是带正电荷的,它们改变了溶液中其他分子的电荷环境。通过对分子施加不同的力,分子改变形状从他们的正常形状。这是特别重要的蛋白质在溶液中,因为一个蛋白质的形状与它的功能有关。

The concentration of hydrogen ions is commonly expressed in terms of the pH scale. Low pH corresponds to high hydrogen ion concentration and vice versa. A substance that when added to water increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (lowers the pH) is called an acid. A substance that reduces the concentration of hydrogen ions (raises the pH) is called a base. Such substances are called buffers. Buffers are very important in helping organisms maintain a relatively constant pH. Note that each decrease in pH by one pH unit means a tenfold increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions.

氢离子的浓度通常在pH值范围内表达。低的pH值对应于高的氢离子浓度,反之亦然。一种物质,当添加到水增加氢离子的浓度(降低pH值)被称为酸。一种降低氢离子浓度(提高pH值)的物质称为碱。这种物质被称为缓冲区。缓冲区在帮助生物是非常重要的保持一个相对恒定的pH值降低到每一个pH单位意味着增加十倍的氢离子浓度。

6. Self-assembly

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions are important because many molecules in biology such as proteins and the molecules that make up the cell membrane have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions on the same molecule.

When put in water these molecules automatically organize themselves into more complex and biologically useful structures. This process is termed self assembly.

6。自组装

疏水性和亲水性的相互作用是重要的,因为在生物学中的许多分子,如蛋白质和分子,使细胞膜具有亲水性和疏水性的区域在同一分子上。

当把这些分子放在水中时,它们会自动地组织成更复杂的和具有生物活性的结构。这个过程被称为自组装。

It is illustrated in the diagram for a molecule with a polar head and a non polar tail. We will see just such molecules involved in cell membranes. Study the diagram carefully. Can you figure out why the micelle forms when these molecules are put in water?

它示出在图中的一个分子与一个极性头和一个非极性尾部。我们将看到这些分子在细胞膜中的作用。仔细研究图表。你能弄清楚为什么当这些分子被放在水中时,胶束形成的原因吗?

第九讲高中英语翻译技巧与能力训练(上)[讲义]

高考英语翻译技巧与能力训练 高考英语中的翻译(中译英)题要求考生能应用所学过的语法和词汇来准确地表达思想,是一种要求相当高的考查形式。要求考生把中文的句子译成通顺的、语法结构正确的、符合英语表达习惯的英语句子,并能准确地传达中文句子中的每一个信息。该题型全面地考查学生英语词汇、语法等知识的综合运用能力,它对学生的动词时态、语态、名词的单复数、冠词、形容词、副词、介词等应用能力,还对学生的词组、句型、句子结构等进行了全面考查。翻译不仅在高考英语主观题中占不小的比例,而且翻译能力还直接影响考生在作文中的表现。 高考评分标准: 1.每题中单词拼写、标点符号、大小写错误每两处扣一分;2.语法错误(包括时态错误)每处扣一分;3.译文没用所给的单词扣一分。 如何才能提高中译英水准,在高考中获得理想的分数呢?考生除了必须具备比较扎实的语言基础外,关键还在于学会总结规律,找准中译英的切入点。 一、分析句子结构、寻找合适的句型 中文必须仔细读,一定要看的就是题目给我们的关键字或关键的词组,也就是我们常说的key words。尤其是最后两句翻译句子,它们大都在句子结构上提高了难度。读什么?读出句子结构:对于简单句,辨别出主谓宾,分清定语、同位语和状语;对于并列句,记住两个语法意义上独立的分句,须由连词连接起来;对于复合句,须区分定语从句,名词性从句以及状语从句。一般来说,中译英的句型可分为三大类:1.简单句;2.并列句;3.复合句;同时我们也要注意非谓语动词及其他一些特殊结构。回顾近几年的高考试题时,也不难发现试题中考了一些特殊句式。如:It句型(近几年考得较为频繁)、倒装句、with结构。 例1: 昨天我的电脑坏了。(wrong) 解析:本题考查:1)简单句There be结构;2)wrong的用法;3)中英文表达的差异。 译句:There was something wrong with my computer yesterday. 例2: 遇到困难的时候,我们需要的不是彼此埋怨,而是互相帮助。(not…but) 解析:本题考查:1)复合句:when引导的状语从句;what引导的主语从句;2)not…but结构;3)“彼此埋怨”的英文翻译。 译句:When(we are)in difficulty/When we meet with difficulties/When we have difficulties ,what we need is not to blame each other but to help each other. 例3:我们能做什么来阻止这种疾病蔓延呢?(prevent) 分析:如果有学生没有读全中文原句的话,就很有可能看成是以前所做的“我们要做些什么来阻止这种疾病的蔓延”,而译为We should do something to prevent the spread of this disease.因为这个原因而造成扣分,就太不应该了。 译句:What can we do to prevent the spread of this disease? 例4:他很有可能通过自己的努力得到驾驶执照。(likely) 译句:He is likely to get the driving license with his own efforts. 分析:有些学生一看到有可能,就会想到自己比较熟悉的possible,想当然地翻译成It is possible that…的结构。其实,学生对likely这个key word的使用也是会的,完全能够使用be likely to do或It’s likely th at…的结构。 例5:上海近几年经历了许多变化,如今已成为世界闻名的经济中心。(go through) 分析:乍一看,学生很容易轻易下笔,Shanghai has gone through…,it has become…,这已成为很多学生的一个习惯,句子和句子中随便用逗号隔开,英语不像中文,必须要考虑到句子的结构,逗号也不能随意使用。而此句中,就要想到用并列句中的连接词and来连接两个成分。

从科技英语翻译(1)

2007年6月 第8卷 第2期 长沙铁道学院学报(社会科学版) J un.2007 Vol.8 No.2  从文体特征谈科技英语的翻译3 禹智华 (中南大学外国语学院,湖南长沙 410075) 摘 要:每一类体栽的文章都有其独特的语言表现形式和结构规律。本文从文体学角度分析了科技英语在其词汇、句法、语篇等方面的特点及对其翻译方法的探讨。 关键词:文体特征;词汇;句法;语篇;翻译 在21世纪这个高度信息化的时代,科技英语越来越受到人们的重视。但对于大多数人而言,翻译科技英语时只是满足于表面的处理,并未研究真正的科学的语言,只是依据为一般读者编写的百科全书或图书中出现的通俗专业介绍。他们认为,只要懂得语法规则和一些科技词汇,就能够理解并翻译科技英语文章了。于是这样一个公式似乎顺理成章:科技英语=一般英语语法+科技词汇。其实不然科技英语它着重于对客观事物的描述,或者对逻辑概念的推理,因而在词汇、句法、语篇等方面有着与通用英语不同的自身特点,形成了独特的文体风格。从它特点看来,我们不仅要注意语法词汇等语言学的部分,同时更要根据英汉两种语言表达上的差异,进行原语与目标语之间的调整,使翻译作品更加符合译入语读者的思维习惯。 一、词汇特点 科技词汇主要由一般词汇、专业词汇和半专业词汇三部分构成,他们具有如下明显特点: 第一,科技词汇多源于希腊语和拉丁语,具有庄重、正式的语体特征,如pharmaceutical(药品)、circumvent(阻止)、mechanical(机械的)、technology(技术)等词汇。这类词一般词形较长,难于记忆,其有效的手段就是通过英语的构词法来掌握,尤其是派生法。主要特点是通过添加前、后缀构成新词,不少科技词汇均由此产生,如mono(单一)———monoxide (一氧化物)、di(二,双)———diatomic(双原子的)、anti(抗,防)———antiage(防老化的)、super(超)———(天体物理学)、under(低于,次于)———underreaction(反应不充分)。 第二,不少动词短语往往由一些“稳重”的规范动词替代,体现了科技英语精炼、严肃、权威的文体特征,如turn on--complete、use up--consume和exhaust、put up with--tolerate。 第三,同一词语词义的多专业化,即同一个英语常用词不仅被多个专业采用,而且含义也各不相同。例如“order”一词,在日常英语指“命令、订购”等,在军事上指“队形”,在计算机领域指“指令”,在法律上指“法院上的决议”,在数学方面指“阶,次序”,建筑学则指“柱型”。对于这一类词语,只有通过上下文和具体的语言环境才能确定其真正的含义。 第四,广泛使用缩略词。据统计,这类词语大约有2~3万,其构成方式分有三种:(1)将词的部分截缩而构成新词,如parachute———chute(降落伞)、semiconductor———semicon (半导体)、technology———tech(技术);(2)将词组中的每个词的首字母加在一起构成新词,如Unidentified Flying Object ———U FO(不明飞行物)、Liquefied Natural Gas———L N G(液化天燃气);(3)从两个单词中抽出部分字母而构成新词,如rectifier transformer———rectiforlner(整流变压器)、telegram exchange telex(电传)。过程。因此,从各方面提高科技翻译工作者的能力及加强对科技翻译的研究,找出其特色也显得尤为重要。 二、句法特点 11被动句的广泛使用 因为科技文章的主要目的是讲述客观现象,介绍科技成果,说明生产过程等,所以无须指出行为的主体,使用被动句不仅比主动句更少主观色彩,而且可以使读者的注意力集中在叙述的客体上,与日常英语相比,科技英语更倾向于使用被动句。英语被动语态句的处理,不外乎两种方法:一种是仍保留为被动句,另一种是转换成汉语的主动句。下面以一些句子进行举例说明。 例如:The outside of the converter is made of steel plates. 转钢炉的外壳由钢板制成。 Electrons closer to the nucleus are held more tightly than those in the outer orbits. 靠近原子核的电子比外层轨道上的电子结合的紧。 21大量使用名词化结构和非谓语动词形式 这种结构和形式能够把原来的施动结构蕴藏在深层结构里,从而把更多的信息融于一体,使彼此的逻辑关系更严密,表达更精确,这符合科技英语追求语言表达简练、凝重、客观与浓缩的要求。例如下面这句话,科技英语借助非谓语动词形式和名词化结构,只用一个谓语动词就表达了汉语须用几个行为动词才能表达清楚的概念。Applied science,on the other hand is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to the practical affairs of life and to increasing man’s control over his environment,thus leading to the development of new techniques processes and machines.应用科学则直接涉及应用问题,它研究的是如何将纯科学的工作定律应用于实际生活,应用于加强人类对其周围环境的控制,从而导致新技术、新工艺和新机器的产生。 31长句较多 2713收稿日期:2006-12-16 作者简介:禹智华(1981-),女,湖南邵阳人,硕士研究生。

各专业的英文翻译

哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学(含税收学)Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学(含保险学)Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws

专业英语翻译

1) Electricity can be measured in amount and quality. 电可以用数量和质量来度量。 2) Instrument transformers are installed on the high-voltage equipment. 互感器安装在高压设备上。 3) Electric power is generated in power generating stations or plants. 电能是在发电站或发电厂产生的。 4) The meters are calibrated and the scale is designed to read the value of the desired unit. 这些仪表可以被校准并且设计了不同的量程,以便读出期望的数值。 5)Electrical energy can be stored in two metal plates separated by an insulation medium. Such a device is called a capacitor, and its ability to store electrical energy is termed capacitance. It is measured in Farads. 电能可以储存在被一绝缘介质隔开的两块金属板中,这样的装置被称为电容器,它储存电能的能力就被称为电容。电容的测量单位是法拉。 1)The signal should be filtered before it is amplified. The signal should be filtered before being amplified. 放大信号前,应先对其进行滤波。 2)An object becomes hot. It is placed in the sun. Once being placed in the sun, an object becomes hot. 物体放置在太阳下会变热。 3)We must do various experiments before a new electronic product is designed. Before designing a new electronic product we must do various experiments. 在设计一个新的电子产品之前,我们必须做各种实验。 4)Changing resistance is a method for controlling the flow of the current. 改变电阻是控制电流的一种方法。 5)Conducting electricity means the flow of electrons through an object. 传导电流意味着电子在物体内的流动。 1)The power supply, which is shown in block-diagram in Fig.1, is a single-phase switch-mode inverter. The power supply shown in block-diagram in Fig.1 is a single-phase switch-mode inverter. 图1中用框图表示的电源是一个单相开关逆变器。 2)A three-phase circuit, as it was pointed out above, is merely a combination of three single-phase circuits. A three-phase circuit, as pointed out above, is merely a combination of three single-phase circuits. 正如上面所指出的那样,三相电路只不过是三个单相电路的组合。 3) The transistor, which is working with correctly polarities, can work as an amplifier. The transistor working with correctly polarities can work as an amplifier. 工作于正确电源极性下的晶体管,作用就像放大器。 1)The capacity of individual generators is larger and larger so that the increasing demand of electric power is satisfied. The capacity of individual generators is larger and larger to satisfy the increasing demand of electric power. 单台发电机的容量越来越大,目的就是满足不断增长的用电需求。 2) What does a fuse do? It protects a circuit. The function of a fuse is to protect a circuit. 保险的作用就是保护电路。

完整word版五年级下册英语翻译1 3单元

五年级下册英语翻译(1-3单元) Unit1da P4Let'stal张鹏:你们何时结束在早上?佩德罗:我们结束在一点钟。然后我们吃午饭在家。张鹏:哇。你们何时返回学校在午饭后?佩德罗:在两点半。开始在三点钟。张鹏:你通常何时吃晚饭在西班牙?佩德罗:通常在九点半或者十点钟。张鹏:哇。那是太迟了。 PLet'slearn做早操,吃早饭,上,做运动,吃晚饭。你何时做早操?在七点钟。 P6Let'sspell打扫,钟,班级,聪明的,盘子,茄子,请,玩 P7Let'stal老板:今天你为什么购物?莎拉:我的妈妈昨晚工作,所以我今天购物。老板:好女孩。所以你在周末干什么?莎拉:我经常看电视并且打乒乓球和我的爸爸。老板:那听起来像很多乐趣。莎拉:是的,但是我也是努力工作的。我通常洗我的衣服。有时我烧饭。老板:你是如此忙的。你需要一个机器人去帮你。 P8Let'slearn打扫我的房间,去散步,去购物,上一节舞

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中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务,为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学(含税收学)Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学(含保险学)Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence

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